The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Trouvelot astronomical drawings
manual, by Étienne Léopold Trouvelot

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before
using this eBook.

Title: The Trouvelot astronomical drawings manual

Author: Étienne Léopold Trouvelot

Release Date: June 24, 2022 [eBook #68394]

Language: English

Produced by: Laura Natal Rodrigues (Images generously made available by
             Hathi Trust Digital Library and Wikipedia Commons.)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TROUVELOT ASTRONOMICAL
DRAWINGS MANUAL ***


THE
TROUVELOT
ASTRONOMICAL DRAWINGS
MANUAL




BY

E. L. TROUVELOT,


FORMERLY CONNECTED WITH THE OBSERVATORY OF HARVARD COLLEGE; FELLOW OF THE
AMERICAN ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES, AND MEMBER OF THE SELENO-GRAPHICAL
SOCIETY OF GREAT BRITAIN; IN CHARGE OF A
GOVERNMENT EXPEDITION TO OBSERVE THE
TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE OF 1878.




NEW YORK

CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS

1882




INTRODUCTION


During a study of the heavens, which has now been continued for more
than fifteen years, I have made a large number of observations
pertaining to physical astronomy, together with many original drawings
representing the most interesting celestial objects and phenomena.

With a view to making these observations more generally useful, I was
led, some years ago, to prepare, from this collection of drawings, a
series of astronomical pictures, which were intended to represent the
celestial phenomena as they appear to a trained eye and to an
experienced draughtsman through the great modern telescopes, provided
with the most delicate instrumental appliances. Over two years were
spent in the preparation of this series, which consisted of a number of
large drawings executed in pastel. In 1876, these drawings were
displayed at the United States Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia,
forming a part of the Massachusetts exhibit, in the Department of
Education and Science.

The drawings forming the present series comprise only a part of those
exhibited at Philadelphia; but, although fewer in number, they are quite
sufficient to illustrate the principal classes of celestial objects and
phenomena.

While my aim in this work has been to combine scrupulous fidelity and
accuracy in the details, I have also endeavored to preserve the natural
elegance and the delicate outlines peculiar to the objects depicted; but
in this, only a little more than a suggestion is possible, since no
human skill can reproduce upon paper the majestic beauty and radiance of
the celestial objects.

The plates were prepared under my supervision, from the original pastel
drawings, and great care has been taken to make the reproduction exact.

The instruments employed in the observations, and in the delineation of
the heavenly bodies represented in the series, have varied in aperture
from 6 to 26 inches, according to circumstances, and to the nature of
the object to be studied. The great Washington refractor, kindly placed
at my disposal by the late Admiral C. H. Davis, has contributed to this
work, as has also the 26 inch telescope of the University of Virginia,
while in the hands of its celebrated constructors, Alvan Clark & Sons.
The spectroscope used was made by Alvan Clark & Sons. Attached to it is
an excellent diffraction grating, by Mr. L. M. Rutherfurd, to whose
kindness I am indebted for it.

Those unacquainted with the use of optical instruments generally suppose
that all astronomical drawings are obtained by the photographic process,
and are, therefore, comparatively easy to procure; but this is not true.
Although photography renders valuable assistance to the astronomer in
the case of the Sun and Moon, as proved by the fine photographs of these
objects taken by M. Janssen and Mr. Rutherfurd; yet, for other subjects,
its products are in general so blurred and indistinct that no details of
any great value can be secured. A well-trained eye alone is capable of
seizing the delicate details of structure and of configuration of the
heavenly bodies, which are liable to be affected, and even rendered
invisible, by the slightest changes in our atmosphere.

The method employed to secure correctness in the proportions of the
original drawings is simple, but well adapted to the purpose in view. It
consists in placing a fine reticule, cut on glass, at the common focus
of the objective and the eye-piece, so that in viewing an object, its
telescopic image, appearing projected on the reticule, can be drawn very
accurately on a sheet of paper ruled with corresponding squares. For a
series of such reticules I am indebted to the kindness of Professor
William A. Rogers, of the Harvard College Observatory.

The drawings representing telescopic views are inverted, as they appear
in a refracting telescope--the South being upward, the North downward,
the East on the right, and the West on the left. The Comet, the
Milky-Way, the Eclipse of the Moon, the Aurora Borealis, the Zodiacal
Light and the Meteors are represented as seen directly in the sky with
the naked eye. The Comet was, however, drawn with the aid of the
telescope, without which the delicate structure shown in the drawing
would not have been visible.

The plate representing the November Meteors, or so-called "Leonids," may
be called an ideal view, since the shooting stars delineated, were not
observed at the same moment of time, but during the same night. Over
three thousand Meteors were observed between midnight and five o'clock
in the morning of the day on which this shower occurred; a dozen being
sometimes in sight at the same instant. The paths of the Meteors,
whether curved, wavy, or crooked, and also their delicate colors, are in
all cases depicted as they were actually observed.

In the Manual, I have endeavored to present a general outline of what is
known, or supposed, on the different subjects and phenomena illustrated
in the series. The statements made are derived either from the best
authorities on physical astronomy, or from my original observations,
which are, for the most part, yet unpublished.

The figures in the Manual relating to distance, size, volume, mass,
etc., are not intended to be strictly exact, being only round numbers,
which can, therefore, be more easily remembered.

It gives me pleasure to acknowledge that the experience acquired in
making the astronomical drawings published in Volume VIII. of the Annals
of the Harvard College Observatory, while I was connected with that
institution, has been of considerable assistance to me in preparing this
work; although no drawings made while I was so connected have been used
for this series.


                             E. L. TROUVELOT.

_Cambridge, March, 1882._




CONTENTS


INTRODUCTION

LIST OF PLATES

_THE SUN_

GENERAL REMARKS ON THE SUN

SUN-SPOTS AND VEILED SPOTS

SOLAR PROTUBERANCES

TOTAL ECLIPSE OF THE SUN

_THE AURORAL AND ZODIACAL LIGHTS_

THE AURORA BOREALIS

THE ZODIACAL LIGHT

_THE MOON_

THE MOON

ECLIPSES OF THE MOON

_THE PLANETS_

THE PLANETS

THE PLANET MARS

THE PLANET JUPITER

THE PLANET SATURN

_COMETS AND METEORS_

COMETS

SHOOTING-STARS AND METEORS

_THE STELLAR SYSTEMS_

THE MILKY-WAY OR GALAXY

THE STAR-CLUSTERS

THE NEBULÆ

APPENDIX




LIST OF PLATES[1]

PLATE

I. GROUP OF SUN-SPOTS AND VEILED SPOTS.

_Observed June 17, 1875, at 7 h. 30m. A. M._

II. SOLAR PROTUBERANCES.

_Observed May 5, 1873, at 9h. 40m. A. M._

III. TOTAL ECLIPSE OF THE SUN.

_Observed July 29, 1878, at Creston, Wyoming Territory._

IV. AURORA BOREALIS.

_As observed March 1, 1872, at 9h. 25m. P. M._

V. THE ZODIACAL LIGHT.

_Observed February 20, 1876._

VI. MARE HUMORUM.

_From a study made in 1875._

VII. PARTIAL ECLIPSE OF THE MOON.

_Observed October 24, 1874._

VIII. THE PLANET MARS.

_Observed September 3, 1877, at 11h. 55m. P. M._

IX. THE PLANET JUPITER.

_Observed November 1, 1880, at 9h. 30m. P. M._

X. THE PLANET SATURN.

_Observed November 30, 1874, at 5th. 50m. P. M._

XI. THE GREAT COMET OF 1881.

_Observed on the night of June 25-26, at 1h. 30m. A. M._

XII. THE NOVEMBER METEORS.

_As observed between midnight and 3 o'clock A. M., on the night
of November 13-14, 1868._

XIII. PART OF THE MILKY-WAY.

_From a study made during the years 1874, 1875 and 1876._

XIV. STAR-CLUSTER IN HERCULES.

_From a study made in June, 1877._

XV. THE GREAT NEBULA IN ORION.

_From a study made in the years 1873-76._


[Footnote 1: For Key to the Plates, see Appendix.]


_Reproduced from the Original Drawings, by Armstrong & Company,
Riverside Press, Cambridge, Mass._




GENERAL REMARKS ON THE SUN


The Sun, the centre of the system which bears its name, is a
self-luminous sphere, constantly radiating heat and light.

Its apparent diameter, as seen at its mean from the Earth, subtends an
angle of 32', or a little over half a degree. A dime, placed about six
feet from the eye, would appear of the same proportions, and cover the
Sun's disk, if projected upon it.

That the diameter of the Sun does not appear larger, is due to the great
distance which separates us from that body. Its distance from the Earth
is no less than 92,000,000 miles. To bridge this immense gap, would
require 11,623 globes like the Earth, placed side by side, like beads on
a string.

The Sun is an enormous sphere whose diameter is over 108 times the
diameter of our globe, or very nearly 860,000 miles. Its radius is
nearly double the distance from the Earth to the Moon. If we suppose,
for a moment, the Sun to be hollow, and our globe to be placed at the
centre of this immense spherical shell, not only could our satellite
revolve around us at its mean distance of 238,800 miles, as now, but
another satellite, placed 190,000 miles farther than the Moon, could
freely revolve likewise, without ever coming in contact with the solar
envelope.

The circumference of this immense sphere measures 2,800,000 miles. While
a steamer, going at the rate of 300 miles a day, would circumnavigate
the Earth in 83 days, it would take, at the same rate, nearly 25 years
to travel around the Sun.

The surface of the Sun is nearly 12,000 times the surface of the Earth,
and its volume is equal to 1,300,000 globes like our own. If all the
known planets and satellites were united in a single mass, 600 such
compound masses would be needed to equal the volume of our luminary.

Although the density of the Sun is only one-quarter that of the Earth,
yet the bulk of this body is so enormous that, to counterpoise it, no
less than 314,760 globes like our Earth would be required.

The Sun uniformly revolves around its axis in about 25½ days. Its
equator is inclined 7° 15' to the plane of the ecliptic, the axis of
rotation forming, therefore, an angle of 82° 45' with the same plane.
As the Earth revolves about the Sun in the same direction as that of the
Sun's rotation, the apparent time of this rotation, as seen by a
terrestrial spectator, is prolonged from 25½ days to about 27 days and
7 hours.

The rotation of the Sun on its axis, like that of the Earth and the
other planets, is direct, or accomplished from West to East. To an
observer on the Earth, looking directly at the Sun, the rotation of this
body is from left to right, or from East to West.

The general appearance of the Sun is that of an intensely luminous disk,
whose limb, or border, is sharply defined on the heavens. When its
telescopic image is projected on a screen, or fixed on paper by
photography, it is noticed that its disk is not uniformly bright
throughout, but is notably more luminous in its central parts. This
phenomenon is not accidental, but permanent, and is due in reality to a
very rare but extensive atmosphere which surrounds the Sun, and absorbs
the light which that body radiates, proportionally to its thickness,
which, of course, increases towards the limb, to an observer on the
Earth.


THE ENVELOPING LAYERS OF THE SUN


The luminous surface of the Sun, or that part visible at all times, and
which forms its disk, is called the _Photosphere_, from the property it
is supposed to possess of generating light. The photosphere does not
extend to a great depth below the luminous surface, but forms a
comparatively thin shell, 3,000 or 4,000 miles thick, which is distinct
from the interior parts, above which it seems to be kept in suspense by
internal forces. From the observations of some astronomers it would
appear that the diameter of the photosphere is subject to slight
variations, and, therefore, that the solar diameter is not a constant
quantity. From the nature of this envelope, such a result does not seem
at all impossible, but rather probable.

Immediately above the photosphere lies a comparatively thin stratum,
less than a thousand miles in thickness, called the _Reversing Layer_.
This stratum is composed of metallic vapors, which, by absorbing the
light of particular refrangibilities emanating from the photosphere
below, produces the dark Fraunhofer lines of the solar spectrum.

Above the reversing layer, and resting immediately upon it, is a
shallow, semi-transparent gaseous layer, which has been called the
_Chromosphere_, from the fine tints which it exhibits during total
eclipses of the Sun, in contrast with the colorless white light radiated
by the photosphere below. Although visible to a certain extent on the
disk, the chromosphere is totally invisible on the limb, except with the
spectroscope, and during eclipses, on account of the nature of its
light, which is mainly monochromatic, and too feeble, compared with that
emitted by the photosphere, to be seen.

The chromospheric layer, which has a thickness of from 3,000 to 4,000
miles, is uneven, and is usually upheaved in certain regions, its matter
being transported to considerable elevations above its general surface,
apparently by some internal forces. The portions of the chromosphere
thus lifted up, form curious and complicated figures, which are known
under the names of _Solar Protuberances, or Solar Flames_.

Above the chromosphere, and rising to an immense but unknown height, is
the solar atmosphere proper, which is only visible during total eclipses
of the Sun, and which then surrounds the dark body of the Moon with the
beautiful rays and glorious nimbus, called the _Corona_.

These four envelopes: the photosphere, the reversing layer, the
chromosphere, and the corona, constitute the outer portions of our
luminary.

Below the photosphere little can be seen, although it is known, as will
appear below, that at certain depths cloud-like forms exist, and freely
float in an interior atmosphere of invisible gases. Beyond this all is
mystery, and belongs to the domain of hypothesis.


STRUCTURE OF THE PHOTOSPHERE AND CHROMOSPHERE


The apparent uniformity of the solar surface disappears when it is
examined with a telescope of sufficient aperture and magnifying powers.
Seen under good atmospheric conditions, the greater part of the solar
surface appears mottled with an infinite number of small, bright
granules, irregularly distributed, and separated from each other by a
gray-tinted background.

These objects are known under different names. The terms granules and
granulations answer very well for the purpose, as they do not imply
anything positive as to their form and true nature. They have also been
called _Luculœ_, _Rice Grains_, _Willow Leaves_, etc., by different
observers.

Although having different shapes, the granulations partake more or less
of the circular or slightly elongated form. Their diameter, which varies
considerably, has been estimated at from 0".5 to 3", or from 224 to
1,344 miles. The granulations which attain the largest size appear,
under good atmospheric conditions, to be composed of several granules,
closely united and forming an irregular mass, from which short
appendages protrude in various directions.

The number of granulations on the surface of the Sun varies considerably
under the action of unknown causes. Sometimes they are small and very
numerous, while at other times they are larger, less numerous, and more
widely separated. Other things being equal, the granulations are better
seen in the central regions of the Sun than they are near the limb.

Usually the granulations are very unstable; their relative position,
form, and size undergoing continual changes. Sometimes they are seen to
congregate or to disperse in an instant, as if acting under the
influence of attractive and repulsive forces; assembling in groups or
files, and oftentimes forming capricious figures which are very
remarkable, but usually of short duration. In an area of great solar
disturbances, the granulations are often stretched to great distances,
and form into parallel lines, either straight, wavy, or curved, and they
have then some resemblance to the flowing of viscous liquids.

The granulations are usually terminated either by rounded or sharply
pointed summits, but they do not all rise to the same height, as can be
ascertained with the spectroscope when they are seen sidewise on the
limb. In the regions where they are most abundant, they usually attain
greater elevations, and when observed on the limb with the spectroscope,
they appear as slender acute flames.

The granulations terminated by sharply-pointed crests, although observed
in all latitudes, seem to be characteristic of certain regions. A daily
study of the chromosphere, extending over a period of ten years, has
shown me that the polar regions are rarely ever free from these objects,
which are less frequent in other parts of the Sun. In the polar regions
they are sometimes so abundant that they completely form the solar limb.
These forms of granulation are comparatively rare in the equatorial
zones, and when seen there, they never have the permanency which they
exhibit in the polar regions. When observed in the equatorial regions,
they usually appear in small groups, in the vicinity of sun spots, or
they are at least enclosed in areas of disturbances where such spots are
in process of formation. In these regions they often attain greater
elevations than those seen in high latitudes.

As we are certain that in the equatorial zones these slender flames (_i.
e._, granulations) are a sure sign of local disturbance, it may be
reasonably supposed that the same kind of energy producing them nearly
always prevails in the polar regions, although it is there much weaker,
and never reaches beyond certain narrow limits.

Studied with the spectroscope, the granulations are found to be composed
in the main of incandescent hydrogen gas, and of an unknown substance
provisionally called "helium." Among the most brilliant of them are
found traces of incandescent metallic vapors, belonging to various
substances found on our globe.

The chromosphere is not fixed, but varies considerably in thickness in
its different parts, from day to day. Its thickness is usually greater
in the polar regions, where it sometimes exceeds 6,700 miles. In the
equatorial regions the chromosphere very rarely attains this height, and
when it does, the rising is local and occupies only a small area. In
these regions it is sometimes so shallow that its depth is only a few
seconds, and is then quite difficult to measure. These numbers give, of
course, the extreme limits of the variations of the chromosphere; but,
nearly always, it is more shallow in the equatorial regions; and, as far
as my observations go, the difference in thickness between the polar and
equatorial zones is greater in years of calm than it is in years of
great solar activity. But ten years of observation are not sufficient to
warrant any definite conclusions on this subject.

There is undoubtedly some relation between the greater thickness of the
chromosphere in the polar regions, and the abundance and permanence of
the sharply-pointed granulations observed in the same regions. This
becomes more evident when we know that the appearance of
similarly-pointed flames in the equatorial zones is always accompanied
with a local thickening of the chromosphere. The thickening in the polar
regions may be only apparent, and not due to a greater accumulation of
chromospheric gases there; but may be caused by some kind of repulsive
action or polarity, which lifts up and extends the summit of the
granulations in a manner similar to the well-known mode of electric
repulsion and polarity.

As it seems very probable that the heat and light emanating from the Sun
are mainly generated at the base of the granulations, in the filamentary
elements composing the chromosphere and photosphere, it would follow
that, as the size and number of these objects constantly vary, the
amount of heat and light emitted by the Sun should also vary in the same
proportion.

The granulations of the solar surface are represented on Plate I., and
form the general background to the group of Sun-spots forming the
picture.


THE FACULÆ


Although the solar surface is mainly covered with the luminous
granulations and the grayish background above described, it is very rare
that its appearance is so simple and uniform as already represented. For
the most part, on the contrary, it is diversified by larger, brighter,
and more complicated forms, which are especially visible towards the
border of the Sun. Owing to their extraordinary brilliancy, these
objects have been called _Faculœ_ (torches).

Although the faculæ are very seldom seen well beyond 50 heliocentric
degrees from the limb, yet they exist, and are as numerous in the
central parts of the disk as they are towards the border; since they
form a part of the solar surface, and participate in its movement of
rotation. Their appearance near the limb has been attributed to the
effect of absorption produced by the solar atmosphere on the
light from the photosphere; but this explanation seems inadequate,
and does not solve the problem. The well-known fact that the solar
protuberances--which are in a great measure identical with the
faculæ--are much brighter at the base than they are at the summit,
perhaps gives a clue to the explanation of the phenomenon; especially
since we know that, in general, the summit of the protuberances is
considerably broader than their base. When these objects are observed in
the vicinity of the limb, they present their brightest parts to the
observer, since, in this position, they are seen more or less sidewise;
and, therefore, they appear bright and distinct. But as the faculæ
recede from the limb, their sides, being seen under a constantly
decreasing angle, appear more and more foreshortened; and, therefore,
these objects grow less bright and less distinct, until they finally
become invisible, when their bases are covered over by the broad, dusky
summit generally terminating the protuberances.

The faculæ appear as bright and luminous masses or streaks on the
granular surface of the Sun, but they differ considerably in form and
size. Two types at least are distinguishable. In their simplest form
they appear either as isolated white spots, or as groups of such spots
covering large surfaces, and somewhat resembling large flakes of snow.
In their most characteristic types they appear as intensely luminous,
heavy masses, from which, in most cases, issue intricate ramifications,
sometimes extending to great distances. Generally, the ramifications
issuing from the masses of faculæ have their largest branches directed
in the main towards the eastern limb of the Sun. Some of these branches
have gigantic proportions. Occasionally they extend over 60° and even
80° of the solar surface, and, therefore, attain a length of from
450,000 to 600,000 miles.

Although the faculæ may be said to be seen everywhere on the surface of
the Sun, there is a vast difference in different regions, with regard to
their size, number, and brilliancy. They are largest, most abundant, and
brightest on two intermediate zones parallel to the solar equator, and
extending 35° or 40° to the north and to the south of this line. The
breadth of these zones varies considerably with the activity of the
solar forces. When they are most active, the faculæ spread on either
side, but especially towards the equator, where they sometimes nearly
meet those of the other zone. In years of little solar activity the
belts formed by the faculæ are very narrow--the elements composing them
being very few and small, although they never entirely disappear.

The faculæ are very unstable, and are constantly changing: those of the
small types sometimes form and vanish in a few minutes. When an area of
disturbance of the solar surface is observed for some time, all seems in
confusion; the movements of the granulations become unusually violent;
they congregate in all sorts of ways, and thus frequently form temporary
faculæ. Action of this kind is, for the most part, peculiar to the
polar regions of the Sun.

The larger faculæ have undoubtedly another origin, as they seem to be
mainly formed by the ejection of incandescent gases and metallic vapors
from the interior of the photosphere. In their process of development
some of the heavy masses of faculæ are swollen up to great heights,
being torn in all sorts of ways, showing large rents and fissures
through which the sight can penetrate.

Very few faculæ are represented in Plate I.; several streaks are shown
at the upper left-hand corner, some appearing as whitish ramifications
among the granulations representing the general solar surface.




SUN-SPOTS AND VEILED SPOTS

PLATE I


Besides the brilliant faculæ already described, much more conspicuous
markings, though of a totally different character, are very frequently
observed on the Sun. On account of their darkish appearance, which is in
strong contrast with the white envelope of our luminary, these markings
were called _Maculæ_, or Sun-spots, by their earlier observers.

The Sun-spots are not equally distributed on the solar surface; but like
the faculæ, to which they are closely related, they occupy two
zones--one on each side of the equator. These zones are comprised
between 10° and 35° of north latitude, and 10° and 35° of south
latitude. Between these two zones is a belt 20° in width, where the
Sun-spots are rarely seen.

Above the latitudes 35° north and south, the Sun-spots are rare, and it
is only occasionally, and during years of great solar activity, that
they appear in these regions; in only a few cases have spots of
considerable size been seen there. A few observers, however, have seen
spots as far as 40° and 50 from the equator; and La Hire even observed
one in 70° of north latitude; but these cases are exceedingly rare. It
is not uncommon, however, to see very small spots, or groups of such
spots, within 8° or 10° from the poles.

The activity of the Sun is subject to considerable fluctuation, and
accordingly the Sun-spots vary in size and number in different years.
During some years they are large, complicated, and very numerous; while
in others they are small and scarce, and are sometimes totally absent
for weeks and months together. The fluctuations in the frequency of
Sun-spots are supposed to be periodical in their character, although
their periods do not always appear to recur at exactly regular
intervals. Sometimes the period is found to be only nine years, while at
other times it extends to twelve years. The period generally adopted now
is 11⅒ years, nearly; but further investigations are needed to
understand the true nature of the phenomenon.

The number of Sun-spots does not symmetrically augment and diminish, but
the increase is more rapid than the diminution.

The period of increase is only about four years, while that of decrease
is over seven years; each period of Sun-spot maximum being nearer the
preceding period of Sun-spot minimum than it is to that next following.

The cause of these fluctuations in the solar energy is at present wholly
unknown. Some astronomers, however, have attributed it to the influence
of the planets Venus and Jupiter, the period of revolution of the latter
planet being not much longer than the Sun-spot period; but this
supposition lacks confirmation from direct observations, which, so far,
do not seem to be in favor of the hypothesis. At the present time the
solar activity is on the increase, and the Sun-spots will probably reach
their maximum in 1883. The last minimum occurred in 1879, when only
sixteen small groups of spots were observed during the whole year.

Sun-spots vary in size and appearance; but, unless they are very small,
in which case they appear as simple black dots, they generally consist
of two distinct and well-characterized parts, nearly always present.
There is first, a central part, much darker than the other, and sharply
divided from it, called the "_Umbra_;" second, a broad, irregular
radiated fringe of lighter shade, completely surrounding the first, and
called the "_Penumbra_."

Reduced to its simplest expression, a Sun-spot is a funnel-shaped
opening through the chromosphere and the photosphere. The inner end of
the funnel, or opening, gives the form to the umbra, while its sloping
sides form the penumbra.

The umbra of Sun-spots, whose outlines approximately follow the
irregularities of the penumbral fringe, has a diameter which generally
exceeds the width of the penumbral ring. Sometimes it appears uniformly
black throughout; but it is only so by contrast, as is proved when
either Mercury or Venus passes near a spot during a transit over the
Sun's disk. The umbra then appears grayish, when compared with the
jet-black disk of the planet.

The umbra of spots is rarely so simple as just described; but it is
frequently occupied, either partly or wholly, by grayish and rosy forms,
somewhat resembling loosely-entangled muscular fibres. These forms have
been called the _Gray and Rosy Veils_. Frequently these veils appear as
if perforated by roundish black holes, improperly called _Nuclei_, which
permit the sight to penetrate deeper into the interior. To all
appearance the gray and rosy veils are of the same nature as the
chromosphere and the faculæ, and are therefore mainly composed of
hydrogen gas.

Whatever can be known about the interior of the Sun, must be learned
from the observations of these openings, which are comparatively small.
But whatever this interior may be, we certainly know that it is not
homogeneous. Apparently, the Sun is a gigantic bubble, limited by a very
thin shell. Below this shell exists a large open space filled with
invisible gases, in which, through the openings constituting the
Sun-spots, the gray and rosy veils described above are occasionally seen
floating.

The fringe forming the penumbra of spots is much more complicated than
the umbra. In its simpler form, it is composed of a multitude of bright,
independent filaments of different forms and sizes, partly projecting
one above the other, on the sloping wall of the penumbra, from which
they seem to proceed. Seen from the Earth, these filaments have somewhat
the appearance of thatched straw, converging towards the centre of the
umbra. It is very rare, however, that the convergence of the penumbral
filaments is regular, and great confusion sometimes arises from the
entanglement of these filaments. Some of these elements appear straight,
others are curved or loop-shaped; while still others, much larger and
brighter than the rest, give a final touch to this chaos of filaments,
from which results the general thatched and radiating appearance of the
penumbra.

The extremities of the penumbral filaments, especially of those forming
the border of the umbra, are usually club-shaped and appear very
brilliant, as if these elements had been superheated by some forces
escaping through the opening of the spots.

Besides these characteristics, the Sun-spots have others, which,
although not always present, properly belong to them. Comparatively few
spots are so simple as the form just described. Very frequently a spot
is accompanied by brilliant faculæ, covering part of its umbra and
penumbra, and appearing to form a part of the spot itself.

When seen projected over Sun-spots, the faculæ appear intensely bright,
and from these peculiarities they have been called _Luminous Bridges_.
They are, in fact, bridges, but in most cases they are at considerable
heights above the spots, kept there by invisible forces. When such spots
with luminous bridges approach the Sun's limb, it is easy to see, by the
rapid apparent displacement which they undergo, that they are above the
general level.

When the spots are closing up, the inverse effect is sometimes observed.
On several occasions, I have seen huge masses of faculæ advance slowly
over the penumbra of a spot and fall into the depths of the umbra,
resembling gigantic cataracts. I have seen narrow branches of faculæ,
which, after having fallen to great depths in the umbra, floated across
it and disappeared under the photosphere on the opposite side. I have
also seen luminous bridges, resembling cables, tightly stretched across
the spots, slackening slowly, as if loosened at one end, and gently
curving into the umbra, where they formed immense loops, large enough to
receive our globe.

It is to be remarked that, in descending under the photospheric shell,
the bright faculæ and the luminous bridges gradually lose their
brilliancy. At first they appear grayish, but in descending farther they
assume more and more the pink color peculiar to the rosy veils. The
pinkish color acquired by the faculæ when they reach a certain depth
under the photosphere, is precisely the color of the chromosphere and of
the solar protuberances, as seen during total eclipses of the Sun--a
fact which furnishes another proof that the faculæ are of the same
nature as the protuberances.

I record here an observation which, at first sight, may appear
paradoxical; but which seems, however, to be of considerable importance,
as it shows unmistakably that the solar light is mainly, if not
entirely, generated on its surface, or at least very near to it. On May
26, 1878, I observed a large group of Sun-spots at a little distance
from the east limb of the Sun. The spot nearest to the limb was partly
covered over on its eastern and western sides by bright and massive
faculæ which concealed about two-thirds of the whole spot, only a
narrow opening, running from north to south, being left across the
middle of the spot. Owing to the rotundity of the Sun, the penumbra of
this spot, although partly covered by the faculæ, could, however, be
seen on its eastern side, since the sight of the observer could there
penetrate sidewise under the faculæ. Upon that part of the penumbra
appeared a strong shadow, representing perfectly the outline of the
facular mass situated above it. The phenomenon was so apparent that no
error of observation was possible, and a good drawing of it was secured.
If this faculæ had been as bright beneath as it was above, it is
evident that no shadow could have been produced; hence the light of
these faculæ must have been mainly generated on or very near their
exterior surfaces. This, with the well-proved fact that the bright
faculæ lose their light in falling into the interior of the Sun, seems
to suggest the idea that the bright light emitted by the faculæ, and
very probably all the solar light, can be generated only on its surface;
the presence of the coronal atmosphere being perhaps necessary to
produce it. Several times before this observation, I had suspected that
some faculæ were casting a shadow, but as this seemed so improbable, my
attention was not awakened until the phenomenon became so prominent that
it could not escape notice.

With due attention, some glimpses of the phenomenon can frequently be
observed through the openings of some of the faculæ projecting over the
penumbra of Sun-spots. It is very seldom that the structure of the
penumbra is seen through such openings, which usually appear as dark as
the umbra of the large spots, although they do not penetrate through the
photosphere like the latter. It is only when the rents in the faculæ
are numerous and quite large, that the penumbral structure is recognized
through them. Since these superficial rents in the faculæ do not extend
through the photosphere, and appear black, it seems evident that the
penumbra seen through them cannot be as bright as it is when no faculæ
are projected upon it, and therefore that the faculæ intercept light
from the exterior surface, which would otherwise reach the penumbra.

While the matter forming the faculæ sometimes falls into the interior
of the Sun, the same kind of matter is frequently ejected in enormous
quantities, and with great force, from the interior, through the visible
and invisible openings of the photosphere, and form the protuberances
described in the following section of this manual (Solar protuberances)
It is not only the incandescent hydrogen gas or the metallic vapors
which are thus ejected, but also cooler hydrogen gas, which sometimes
appears as dark clouds on the solar surface. On December 12, 1875, I
observed such a cloud of hydrogen issuing from the corner of a small
Sun-spot. It traveled several thousand miles on the solar surface, in a
north-easterly direction, before it became invisible.

Solar spots are formed in various ways; but, for the most part, the
apparition of a spot is announced beforehand, by a great commotion of
the solar surface at the place of its appearance, and by the formation
of large and bright masses of faculæ, which are usually swollen into
enormous bubbles by the pressure of the internal gases. These bubbles
become visible in the spectroscope while they are traversing the solar
limb, as they are then presented to us sidewise. Under the action of the
increasing pressure, the base of the faculæ is considerably stretched,
and, its weakest side finally giving way, the facular mass is torn in
many places from the solar surface, and is perforated by holes of
different sizes and forms. The holes thus made along the border of the
faculæ appear as small black spots, separated more or less by the
remaining portion of the lacerated faculæ, and they enlarge more and
more at the expense of the intervening portions, which thus become very
narrow. This perforated side of the faculæ, offering less resistance,
is gradually lifted up, as would be the cover of a box, for example,
while its opposite side remains attached to the surface. The facular
matter separating the small black holes is greatly stretched during this
action, and forms long columns and filaments. These appear as luminous
bridges upon the large and perfectly-formed spot, which is then seen
under the lifted facular masses. The spots thus made visible are soon
freed from the facular masses, which are gradually shifted towards the
opposite side.

In such cases the spots are undoubtedly formed under the faculæ before
they can be seen. This becomes evident when such spots, not yet cleared
from the faculæ covering them, are observed near the east limb; since
in this position the observer can see through the side-openings of the
faculæ, and sometimes recognize the spots under their cover.

It frequently occurs that the spots thus formed under the faculæ
continue to be partly covered by the facular clouds, the forces at work
in them being apparently too feeble to shift them aside. In such cases
these spots are visible when they are in the vicinity of the limb, where
they are seen sidewise; but when observed in the east, in being carried
forward by the solar rotation towards the centre of the disk, they
gradually diminish in size, and finally become invisible. The
disappearance of these spots, however, is only apparent, being due to
the fact that, as they advance towards the centre of the disk, our
lateral view of them is gradually lost, and they are finally hidden from
sight by the overhanging faculæ which then serve as a screen between
the observer and the spot. This class of spots may be called _Lateral
Spots_, from the fact that they can only be seen laterally, and near the
Sun's limb.

Solar spots are also formed in various other ways. Some, like those
represented in Plate I., appearing without being announced by any
apparent disturbance of the surface, or by the formation of any faculæ,
form and develop in a very short time. Others, appearing at first as
very small spots having an umbra and a penumbra, slowly and gradually
develop into very large spots. This mode of formation, which would seem
to be the most natural, is, however, quite rare. Spots of this class
have a duration and permanence not observed in those of any other type.
These spots of slow and regular development are never accompanied by
faculæ or luminous bridges, nor have they any gray or rosy veils in
their interior; a fact which may, perhaps, account for their permanent
character.

Another class of spots, which is also rare, appear as long and narrow
crevasses showing the penumbral structure of the ordinary spots; but
these rarely have any umbra. These long, and sometimes exceedingly
narrow fissures of the solar envelopes, with their radiated penumbral
structure, strongly suggest the idea that the photosphere is composed of
a multitude of filamentary elements having the granulations for summits.
Such a crevasse is represented on Plate I., and unites the two spots
which form the group.

The duration of Sun-spots varies greatly. Some last only for a few
hours; while others continue for weeks and even months at a time, but
not without undergoing changes.

The modes of disappearance of Sun-spots are as various as those of their
apparition. The spots rarely close up by a gradual diminution or
contraction of their umbra and penumbra. This mode of disappearance
belongs exclusively to the spots deprived of faculæ and veils. One of
the most common modes of the disappearance of a spot is its invasion by
large facular masses, which slowly advance upon its penumbra and umbra
and finally cover it entirely. It is a process precisely the reverse of
that in which spots are formed by the shifting aside of the faculæ, as
above described. In other types, the spots close up by the gradual
enlargement of the luminous bridges traversing them, which are slowly
transformed into branches of the photosphere, all of the characteristics
of which they have acquired. In many cases, the spots covered over by
the faculæ continue to exist for some time, hidden under these masses,
as is often proved, either by the appearance of small spots on the
facular mass left at the place they occupied, or even by the
reappearance of the same spot.

Apart from the general movement of rotation of the solar surface, some
of the spots seem to be endowed with a proper motion of their own, which
becomes greater the nearer the spots are to the solar equator. According
to the observations of Mr. Carrington, the period of rotation of the
Sun, as deduced from the observations of the solar spots during a period
of seven years, is 25 days at the equator; while at 50° of heliocentric
latitude it is 27 days. But the period of rotation, as derived from the
observations of spots occupying the same latitude, is far from being
constant, as it varies at different times, with the frequency of the
spots and with the solar activity, so that at present the law of these
variations is not well known. From the character of the solar envelope,
it seems very natural that the rotation should differ in the different
zones and at different times, since this envelope is not rigid, but very
movable, and governed by forces which are themselves very variable.

Although it is a general law that the spots near the equator have a more
rapid motion than those situated in higher latitudes, yet, in many
cases, the proper motion of the spots is more apparent than real. For
the most part, the changes of form and the rapid displacements observed
in some spots are only apparent, and due to the fact that the large
masses of faculæ which are kept in suspense above them are very
unstable, and change position with the slightest change in the forces
holding them in suspension. Since in these cases we view the spots
through the openings of the faculæ situated above them, the slightest
motion of these objects produces an apparent motion in the spots,
although they have remained motionless. Accordingly, it has been
remarked that of all the spots, those which have the greater proper
motion are precisely those which have the most faculæ and luminous
bridges; while the other spots in the same regions, but not attended by
similar phenomena, are comparatively steady in their movement. These
last spots are undoubtedly better adapted than any others to exhibit the
rotation of the Sun; but it is probable that this period of rotation
will never be known with accuracy, simply because the solar surface is
unstable, and does not rotate uniformly.

The Sun-spots have a remarkable tendency to form into groups of various
sizes, but whatever may be the number of spots thus assembled, the group
is nearly always composed of two principal spots, to which the others
are only accessories. The tendency of the Sun-spots to assemble in pairs
is general, and is observed in all latitudes, even among the minute
temporary groups formed in the polar regions. Whenever several are
situated quite close together, those belonging to the same group can be
easily recognized by this character. Whatever may be the position of the
axis of the two principal spots of a group when it is first formed, this
axis has a decided tendency to place itself parallel to the solar
equator, no matter to what latitude the group belongs; and if it is
disturbed from this position, it soon returns to it when the disturbance
has ceased.

It is also remarkable that the spots observed at the same time remain in
nearly the same parallel of latitude for a greater or less period of
time; but they keep changing their position from year to year, their
latitude decreasing with the activity of the solar forces.

Among the Sun-spots, those associated with faculæ form the groups which
attain the largest proportions. When such groups acquire an apparent
diameter of 1' or more, they are plainly visible to the naked eye, since
for a spot to be visible to the naked eye on the Sun, it need only
subtend an angle of 50". I have sometimes seen such groups through a
smoky atmosphere, when the solar light was so much reduced that the disk
could be observed directly and without injury to the sight.

The largest spot which ever came under my observation was seen during
the period from the 13th to the 19th of November, 1870. This spot, which
was on the northern hemisphere of the Sun, was conspicuous among the
smaller spots constituting the group to which it belonged, and followed
them on the east. On November 16th, when it attained its largest size,
the diameter of its penumbra occupied fully one-fifth of the diameter of
the Sun; its real diameter being, therefore, not less than 172,000
miles, or nearly 22 times the diameter of the Earth. As the umbra of
this spot occupied a little more than one-third of its whole diameter,
seven globes like our own, placed side by side on a straight line, could
easily have passed through this immense gap. To fill the area of this
opening, about 45 such globes would have been needed. This spot was, of
course, very easily seen with the naked eye, its diameter being almost
eight times that required for a spot to be visible without a telescope.

Ancient historians often speak of obscurations of the Sun, and it has
been supposed by some astronomers that this phenomenon might have been
due in some cases to the apparition of large spots. A few spots on the
surface of the Sun, like that just described, would sensibly reduce its
light.

Besides the ordinary Sun-spots already described, others are at times
observed on the surface of the Sun, which show some of the same
characteristics, but never attain so large proportions. They always
appear as if seen through a fog, or veil, between the granulations of
the solar surface. On account of their vagueness and ill-defined
contours, I have proposed for these objects the term, "_Veiled Spots_."
Veiled spots have a shorter duration than the ordinary spots, the
smaller types sometimes forming and vanishing in a few minutes. Some of
the larger veiled spots, however, remain visible for several days in
succession, and show the characteristics of other spots in regard to the
arrangement of their parts.

The veiled spots have no umbra or penumbra, although they are usually
accompanied by faculæ resembling those seen near the ordinary spots.
They are frequently seen in the polar regions, but are there always of
small size and of short duration. The veiled spots are larger, and more
apt to arrange themselves into groups, in the regions occupied by the
ordinary spots, and it is not rare to observe such spots transform
themselves into ordinary spots, and vice versa. The veiled spots,
therefore, seem to be ordinary spots filled up, or covered over by the
granulations and semi-transparent gases composing the chromospheric
layer. That it is so, becomes more evident, from the fact that large
Sun-spots in process of diminution are sometimes gradually covered with
faint and scattered granules which descend in long, narrow filaments,
and become less and less distinguishable as they attain greater depth.
This phenomenon, associated with the fact that the luminous bridges seen
over the Sun-spots which are closing up are sometimes transformed into
branches which show the characteristic structure of the photosphere,
goes far to prove that the solar envelopes are mainly composed of an
innumerable quantity of radial filaments of varying height.


[PLATE I.--GROUP OF SUN-SPOTS AND VEILED SPOTS.

Observed on June 17th 1875 at 7 h. 30 m. A.M.]


The group of Sun-spots represented in Plate I., was observed and drawn
on June 17th, 1875, at 7h. 30m. A. M. The first traces of this group
were seen on June 15th, at noon, and consisted of three small black dots
disseminated among the granulations. At that time, no disturbance of the
surface was noticeable, and no faculæ were seen in the vicinity of these
spots. On June 16th, at 8 o'clock A. M., the three small spots had
become considerably enlarged, and, as usual, the group consisted of two
principal spots. Between these two spots all was in motion: the
granulations, stretched into long, wavy, parallel lines, had somewhat
the appearance of a liquid in rapid motion. At 1 o'clock, P. M., on the
same day, the group had considerably enlarged; the faculæ, the
granulations, and the penumbral filaments being interwoven in an
indescribable manner. On the morning of the 17th, these spots had
assumed the complicated form and development represented in the drawing;
while at the same time two conspicuous veiled spots were seen on the
left hand, at some distance above the group.

Some luminous bridges are visible upon the left hand spot, traversing
the penumbra and umbra of this spot in various directions. The umbra of
one of the spots is occupied, and partly filled with gray and rosy
veils, similar to those above described, and the granulations of the
solar surface form a background to the group of spots.

This group of spots was not so remarkable for its size as for its
complicated structure. The diameter of the group from east to west was
only 2½ minutes of arc, or about 67,000 miles. The upper part of the
umbra of the spot situated on the right hand side of the group was
nearly 7,000 miles in diameter, or less by 1,000 miles than the diameter
of the Earth. Some of the long filaments composing that part of the
penumbra, situated on the left hand side of the same spot, were 17,000
miles in length. One of these fiery elements would be sufficient to
encircle two-thirds of the circumference of the Earth.




SOLAR PROTUBERANCES

PLATE II


The chromosphere forming the outlying envelope of the Sun, is subject,
as has been shown above, to great disturbances in certain regions,
causing considerable upheavals of its surface and violent outbursts of
its gases. From these upheavals and outbursts of the chromosphere result
certain curious and very interesting forms, which are known under the
name of "_Solar Protuberances_," "_Prominences_," or "_Flames_."

These singular forms, which could, until recently, be observed only
during the short duration of the total eclipses of the Sun, can now be
seen on every clear day with the spectroscope, thanks to Messrs. Janssen
and Lockyer, to whose researches solar physics is so much indebted.


[PLATE II.--SOLAR PROTUBERANCES.

Observed on May 5, 1873 at 9h, 40m. A.M.]


The solar protuberances, the Sun-spots, and the faculæ to which they
are closely related, are confined within the same general regions of the
Sun, although the protuberances attain higher heliocentric latitudes.

There is certainly a very close relation between the faculæ and the
solar protuberances, since when a group of the faculæ traverses the
Sun's limb, protuberances are always seen at the same place. It seems
very probable that the faculæ and the protuberances are in the main
identical. The faculæ may be the brighter portion of the protuberances,
consisting of gases which are still undergoing a high temperature and
pressure; while the gases which have been relieved from this pressure
and have lost a considerable amount of their heat, may form that part of
the protuberances which is only visible on the Sun's limb.

A daily study of the solar protuberances, continued for ten years, has
shown me that these objects are distributed on two zones which are
equidistant from the solar equator, and parallel with it. The zone
arrangement of the protuberances is more easily recognized during the
years of minimum solar activity, as in these years the zones are very
narrow and widely separated. During these years the belt of
protuberances is situated between 40° and 45° of latitude, north and
south. In years of great solar activity the zones spread considerably on
either side of these limits, especially towards the equator, which they
nearly reach, only a narrow belt, usually free from protuberances,
remaining between them. Towards the poles the zones do not spread so
much, and there the space free from protuberances is considerably
greater than it is at the equator.

During years of maximum solar activity, the protuberances, like the
Sun-spots and the faculæ, are very numerous, very large, and very
complicated--sometimes occupying a great part of the whole solar limb.
As many as twenty distinct flames are sometimes observed at one time. In
years of minimum solar activity, on the contrary, the prominences are
very few in number, and they are of small size; but, as far as my
observations go, they are never totally absent.

In general, the solar flames undergo rapid changes, especially those
which are situated in the vicinity of Sun-spots, although they
occasionally remain unchanged in appearance and form for several hours
at a time. The protuberances situated in higher latitudes are less
liable to great and sudden changes, often retaining the same form for
several days. The changes observed in the protuberances of the
equatorial regions are due in part to the comparatively great changes in
their position with respect to the spectator, which are occasioned by
the rotation of the Sun. This rotation, of course, has a greater angular
velocity on the equator than in higher latitudes. In most cases,
however, the changes of the equatorial protuberances are too great and
too sudden to be thus explained. They are, in fact, due to the greater
solar activity developed in the equatorial zones, and wherever spots are
most numerous.

The solar protuberances appear under various shapes, and are often so
complicated in appearance that they defy description. Some resemble huge
clumsy masses having a few perforations on their sides; while others
form a succession of arches supported by pillars of different styles.
Others form vertical or inclined columns, often surmounted by cloud-like
masses, or by various appendages, which sometimes droop gracefully,
resembling gigantic palm leaves. Some resemble flames driven by the
wind; others, which are composed of a multitude of long and narrow
filaments, appear as immense fiery bundles, from which sometimes issue
long and delicate columns surmounted by torch-like objects of the most
fantastic pattern. Some others resemble trees, or animal forms, in a
very striking manner; while still others, apparently detached from the
solar limb, float above it, forming graceful streamers or clouds of
various shapes. Some of the protuberances are very massive, while others
are so thin and transparent as to form a mere veil, through which more
distant flames can easily be seen.

Notwithstanding this variety of form, two principal classes of solar
protuberances may be recognized: the cloud-like or quiescent, and the
eruptive or metallic protuberances.

The first class, which is the most common, comprises all the cloud-like
protuberances resting upon the chromosphere or floating about it. The
protuberances of this type often obtain enormous horizontal proportions,
and it is not rare to see some among them occupying 20° and 30° of the
solar limb. The height attained by protuberances of this class does not
correspond in general to their longitudinal extent; although some of
their branches attain considerable elevations. These prominences very
seldom have the brilliancy displayed by the other type, and are
sometimes so faint as to be seen with difficulty. Although it is
generally stated by observers that some of the protuberances belonging
to this class are detached from the solar surface, and kept in
suspension above the surface, like the clouds in our atmosphere, yet it
seems to me very doubtful whether protuberances are ever disconnected
from the chromosphere, since, in an experience of ten years, I have
never been able to satisfy myself that such a thing has occurred. Many
of them have appeared to me at first sight to be detached from the
surface, but with a little patience and attention I was always able to
detect faint traces of filamentary elements connecting them with the
chromosphere. Quite often I have seen bright protuberances gradually
lose their light and become invisible, while soon after they had
regained it, and were as clearly visible as before. Observations of this
kind seem to show that while the prominences are for the most part
luminous, there are also a few which are non-luminous and invisible to
the eye. These dark and invisible forms are most generally found in the
vicinity of Sun-spots in great activity. When observing such regions
with the spectroscope, it is not rare to encounter them in the form of
large dark spots projecting on the solar spectrum near the hydrogen
lines. On July 28th, 1872, I observed with the spectroscope a dark spot
of this kind issuing from the vicinity of a large Sun-spot, and
extending over one-fifth of the diameter of the Sun. This object had
been independently observed in France a little earlier by M. Chacornac
with the telescope, in which it appeared as a bluish streak.

The second class of solar protuberances, comprising the eruptive type,
is the most interesting, inasmuch as it conveys to us a conception of
the magnitude and violence of the solar forces. The protuberances of
this class, which are always intensely bright, appear for the most part
in the immediate vicinity of Sun-spots or faculæ. These protuberances,
which seem to be due to the outburst of the chromosphere, and to the
violent ejection of incandescent gases and metallic vapors from the
interior of the Sun, sometimes attain gigantic proportions and enormous
heights.

While the spectrum of the protuberances of the cloudy type is simple,
and usually composed of four hydrogen lines and the yellow line D{3}, that
of the eruptive class is very complicated, and, besides the hydrogen
lines and D{3}, it often exhibits the bright lines of sodium, magnesium,
barium, titanium, and iron, and occasionally, also, a number of other
bright lines.

The phenomena of a solar outburst are grand and imposing. Suddenly
immense and acute tongues and jets of flames of a dazzling brilliancy
rise up from the solar limb and extend in various directions. Some of
these fiery jets appear perfectly rigid, and remain apparently
motionless in the midst of the greatest disorder. Immense straps and
columns form and rise in an instant, bending and waving in all sorts of
ways and assuming innumerable shapes. Sometimes powerful jets resembling
molten metal spring up from the Sun, describing graceful parabolas,
while in their descent they form numerous fiery drops which acquire a
dazzling brilliancy when they approach the surface.

The upward motion of the protuberances in process of formation is
sometimes very rapid. Some protuberances have been observed to ascend in
the solar atmosphere at the rate of from 120 to 497 miles a second.
Great as this velocity may appear, it is nevertheless insignificant when
compared with that sometimes attained by protuberances moving in the
line of sight instead of directly upwards. Movements of this kind are
indicated by the displacement of the bright or dark lines in the
spectrum. A remarkable instance of this kind occurred on the 26th of
June, 1874. On that day I observed a displacement of the hydrogen C line
corresponding to a velocity of motion of 1,600 miles per second. The
mass of hydrogen gas in motion producing such a displacement was,
according to theory, moving towards the Earth at this incredible rate,
when it instantly vanished from sight as if it had been annihilated, and
was seen no more.

Until recently the protuberances had not been observed to rise more than
200,000 miles above the solar surface; but, on October 7th, 1880, a
flame, which had an elevation of 80,000 miles when I observed it at 8h.
55m. A. M., had attained the enormous altitude of 350,000 miles when it
was observed at noon by Professor C. A. Young. If we had such a
protuberance on the Earth, its summit would be at a height sufficient
not merely to reach, but to extend 100,000 miles beyond the Moon.

Although the solar protuberances represented in Plate II. have not the
enormous proportions attained by some of these objects, yet they are as
characteristic as any of the largest ones, and afford a good
illustration of the purely eruptive type of protuberances. The height of
the largest column in the group equals 4' 43", or a little over 126,000
miles. A large group of Sun-spots was in the vicinity of these
protuberances when they were observed and delineated.




TOTAL ECLIPSE OF THE SUN

PLATE III


A solar eclipse is due to the passage of the Moon directly between the
observer and the Sun. Such an eclipse can only occur at New Moon, since
it is only at that time that our satellite passes between us and the
Sun. The Moon's orbit does not lie precisely in the same plane as the
orbit of the Earth, but is inclined about five degrees to it, otherwise
an eclipse of the Sun would occur at every New Moon, and an eclipse of
the Moon at every Full Moon.

Since the Moon's orbit is inclined to that of the Earth, it must
necessarily intersect this orbit at two opposite points. These points
are called the nodes of the Moon's orbit. When our satellite passes
through either of the nodes when the Moon is new, it appears interposed
to some extent between the Sun and the Earth, and so produces a solar
eclipse; while if it passes a node when the Moon is full, it is more or
less obscured by the Earth's shadow, which then produces an eclipse of
the Moon. But, on the other hand, when the New Moon and the Full Moon do
not coincide with the passage of our satellite through the nodes of its
orbit, no eclipse can occur, since the Moon is not then on a line with
the Sun and the Earth, but above or below that line.

Owing to the ellipticity of the Moon's orbit, the distance of our
satellite from the Earth varies considerably during each of its
revolutions around us, and its apparent diameter is necessarily subject
to corresponding changes. Sometimes it is greater, sometimes it is less,
than the apparent diameter of the Sun. If it is greater at the time of a
solar eclipse, the eclipse will be total to a terrestrial observer
stationed nearly on the line of the centres of the Sun and Moon, while
it will be only partial to another observer stationed further from this
line. But the Moon's distance from the Earth may be so great and its
apparent diameter consequently so small that even those observers
nearest the central line of the eclipse see the border of the Sun all
round the black disk of the Moon; the eclipse is then annular. Even
during the progress of one and the same eclipse the distance of the Moon
from the parts of the Earth towards which its shadow is directed may
vary so much that, while the eclipse is total to some observers, others
equally near the central line, but stationed at a different place, will
see it as annular.

The shadow cast by the Moon on the Earth during total eclipses, travels
along upon the surface of the Earth, in consequence of the daily
movement of rotation of our globe combined with the movements of the
Earth and Moon in their orbits. The track of the Moon's shadow over the
Earth's surface has a general eastward course, so that the more westerly
observers see it earlier than those east of them. An eclipse may
continue total at one place for nearly eight minutes, but in ordinary
cases the total phase is much shorter.

The nodes of the Moon's orbit do not invariably occupy the same
position, but move nearly uniformly, their position with regard to the
Sun, Earth, and Moon being at any time approximately what it formerly
was at a series of times separated by equal intervals from each other.
Each interval comprises 223 lunations, or 18 years, 11 days, and 7 or 8
hours. The eclipses which occur within this interval are almost exactly
repeated during the next similar interval. This period, called the
"Saros," was well known to the ancients, who were enabled by its means
to predict eclipses with some certainty.


[PLATE III.--TOTAL ECLIPSE OF THE SUN.

Observed July 29, 1878, at Creston, Wyoming Territory]


A total eclipse of the Sun is a most beautiful and imposing phenomenon.
At the predicted time the perfectly round disk of the Sun becomes
slightly indented at its western limb by the yet invisible Moon. This
phenomenon is known as the "first contact."

The slight indentation observed gradually increases with the advance of
the Moon from west to east, the irregularities of the surface of our
satellite being plainly visible on the border of the dark segment
advancing on the Sun's disk. With the advance of the Moon on the Sun,
the light gradually diminishes on the Earth. Every object puts on a dull
and gloomy appearance, as when night is approaching; while the bright
sky, losing its light, changes its pure azure for a livid grayish color.

Two or three minutes before totality begins, the solar crescent, reduced
to minute proportions, gives comparatively so little light that faint
traces of the Sun's atmosphere appear on the western side behind the
dark body of the Moon, whose limb then becomes visible outside of the
Sun. I observed this phenomenon at Creston during the eclipse of 1878.
From 15 to 20 seconds before totality, the narrow arc of the Sun's disk
not yet obscured by the Moon seems to break and separate towards the
extremities of its cusps, which, thus divided, form independent points
of light, which are called "_Baily's beads_." A moment after, the whole
solar crescent breaks into numerous beads of light, separated by dark
intervals, and, suddenly, they all vanish with the last ray of Sunlight,
and totality has begun with the "second contact." This phenomenon of
Baily's beads is undoubtedly caused by the irregularities of the Moon's
border, which, on reaching the solar limb, divide the thin solar
crescent into as many beads of light and dark intervals as there are
peaks and ravines seen sidewise on that part of the Moon's limb.

With the disappearance of the last ray of light, the planets and the
stars of the first and second magnitude seem to light up and become
visible in the sky. The darkness, which had been gradually creeping in
with the progress of the eclipse, is then at its maximum. Although
subject to great variations in different eclipses, the darkness is never
so great as might be expected from the complete obscuration of our
luminary, as the part of our atmosphere which is still exposed to the
direct rays of the Sun, reflects to us some of that light, which thus
diminishes the darkness resulting from the disappearance of the Sun.
Usually the darkness is sufficient to prevent the reading of common
print, and to deceive animals, causing them to act as if night was
really approaching. During totality the temperature decreases, while the
humidity of the atmosphere augments.

Simultaneously with the disappearance of Baily's beads, a pale, soft,
silvery light bursts forth from behind the Moon, as if the Sun, in
disappearing, had been vaporized and expanded in all directions into
soft phosphorescent rays and streamers. This pale light is emitted by
gases constituting the solar atmosphere surrounding the bright nucleus
now obscured by the dark body of our satellite. This solar atmosphere is
called _Corona_, from its distant resemblance to the aureola, or glory,
represented by ancient painters around the heads of saints.

With the bursting forth of the corona, a very thin arc of bright white
light is seen along the Moon's limb, where the solar crescent has just
disappeared. This thin arc of light is the reversing layer, which, when
observed with the spectroscope at that moment, exhibits bright lines
answering to the dark lines of the ordinary solar spectrum. Immediately
above this reversing layer, and concentric with it, appears the
pink-colored chromospheric layer, with its curiously shaped flames and
protuberances. During totality, the chromosphere and protuberances are
seen without the aid of the spectroscope, and appear of their natural
color, which, although somewhat varying in their different parts, is, on
the whole, pinkish, and similar to that of peach-blossoms; yet it is
mixed here and there with delicate prismatic hues, among which the pink
and straw colors predominate.

The color of the corona seems to vary in every eclipse, but as its tints
are very delicate, it may depend, in a great measure, upon the vision of
the observer; although there seems to be no doubt that there are real
variations. At Creston, in 1878, it appeared to both Professor W.
Harkness and myself of a decided pale greenish hue.

The corona appears under different forms, and has never been observed
twice alike. Its dimensions are also subject to considerable variations.
Sometimes it appears regular and very little extended, its distribution
around the Sun being almost uniform; although in general it spreads a
little more in the direction of the ecliptic, or of the solar equator.
At other times it appears much larger and more complicated, and forms
various wings and appendages, which in some cases, as in 1878, extend to
immense distances; while delicate rays radiate in straight or curved
lines from the spaces left in the polar regions between the wings. The
corona has sometimes appeared as if divided by immense dark gaps,
apparently free from luminous matter, and strongly resembling the dark
rifts seen in the tails of comets. This was observed in Spain and Sicily
during the total eclipse of the Sun in 1870. Different structures,
forming wisps and streamers of great length, and interlaced in various
ways, are sometimes present in the corona, while faint but more
complicated forms, distantly resembling enormous solar protuberances
with bright nuclei, have also been observed.

As the Moon continues its eastward progress, it gradually covers the
chromosphere and the solar protuberances on the eastern side of the Sun;
while, at the same time, the protuberances and the chromosphere on the
opposite limb gradually appear from under the retreating Moon. Then, the
thin arc of the reversing layer is visible for an instant, and is
instantly followed by the appearance of a point of dazzling white light,
succeeded immediately by the apparition of Daily's beads on each side,
and totality is over, with this third contact. The corona continues to
be visible on the eastern side of the Sun for several minutes longer,
and then rapidly vanishes.

The thin solar crescent increases in breadth as the Moon advances;
while, at the same time, the darkness and gloom spread over nature
gradually disappear, and terrestrial objects begin to resume their
natural appearance. Finally the limb of the Moon separates from that of
the Sun at the instant of "fourth contact," and the eclipse is over.

The phenomena exhibited by the corona in different eclipses are very
complex, and, so far, they have not been sufficiently studied to enable
us to understand the true nature of the solar atmosphere. From the
spectral analysis of the corona, and the phenomena of polarization, it
has been learned, at least, that while the matter composing the upper
part of the solar atmosphere is chiefly composed of an unknown
substance, producing the green line 1474, its lower part is mainly
composed of hydrogen gas at different temperatures, a part of which is
self-luminous, while the other part only reflects the solar light. But
the proportion of the gaseous particles emitting light, to those simply
reflecting it, is subject to considerable variations in different
eclipses. At present it would seem that in years of great solar
disturbances, the particles emitting light are found in greater quantity
in the corona than those reflecting it; but further observations will be
required to confirm these views.

It is very difficult to understand how the corona, which in certain
eclipses extends only one diameter of the Sun, should, in other cases,
as in 1878, extend to the enormous distance of twelve times the same
diameter. Changes of such magnitude in the solar atmosphere, if due to
the operation of forces with which we are acquainted, cannot yet be
accounted for by what is known of such forces. Their causes are still as
mysterious as those concerned in the production of the monstrous tails
displayed by some comets on their approach to the Sun.

Plate 3, representing the total eclipse of the Sun of July 29th, 1878,
was drawn from my observations made at Creston, Wyoming Territory, for
the Naval Observatory. The eclipse is represented as seen in a
refracting telescope, having an aperture of 6⅓ inches, and as it
appeared a few seconds before totality was over, and when the
chromosphere was visible on the western limb of the Sun. The two long
wings seen on the east and west side of the Sun, appeared considerably
larger in the sky than they are represented in the picture.




THE AURORA BOREALIS

PLATE IV


The name of Polar Auroras is given to certain very remarkable luminous
meteoric phenomena which appear at intervals above the northern or the
southern horizons of both hemispheres of the Earth. When the phenomenon
is produced in our northern sky, it is called "Aurora Borealis," or
"Northern Lights;" and when it appears in the southern sky, it is called
"Aurora Australis," or southern aurora.

Marked differences appear in the various auroras observed from our
northern latitudes. While some simply consist in a pale, faint
luminosity, hardly distinguishable from twilight, others present the
most gorgeous and remarkable effects of brightness and colors.

A great aurora is usually indicated in the evening soon after twilight,
by a peculiar grayish appearance of the northern sky just above the
horizon. The grayish vapors giving that appearance, continuing to form
there, soon assume a dark and gloomy aspect, while they gradually take
the form of a segment of a circle resting on the horizon. At the same
time that this dark segment is forming, a soft pearly light, which seems
to issue from its border, spreads up in the sky, where it gradually
vanishes, being the brightest at its base. This arc of light, gradually
increasing in extent as well as in brightness, reaches sometimes as far
as the polar star. On some rare occasions, one or two, and even three,
concentric arches of bright light form one above the other over the dark
segment, where they appear as brilliant concentric rainbows. While the
aurora continues to develop and spread out its immense arc, the border
of the dark segment loses its regularity and appears indented at several
places by patches of light, which soon develop into long, narrow,
diverging rays and streamers of great beauty. For the most part the
auroral light is either whitish or of a pale, greenish tint; but in some
cases it exhibits the most beautiful colors, among which the red and
green predominate. In these cases the rays and streamers, which are
usually of different colors, produce the most magnificent effects by
their continual changes and transformations.

The brightness and extent of the auroral rays are likewise subject to
continual changes. An instant suffices for their development and
disappearance, which may be succeeded by the sudden appearance of others
elsewhere, as though the original streamers had been swiftly transported
to a new place while invisible. It frequently happens that all the
streamers seem to move sidewise, from west to east, along the arch,
continuing meanwhile to exhibit their various changes of form and color.
For a time, these appearances of motion continue to increase, a
succession of streamers alternately shooting forth and again fading,
when a sudden lull occurs, during which all motion seems to have ceased.
The stillness then prevailing is soon succeeded by slight pulsations of
light, which seem to originate on the border-of the dark segment, and
are propagated upwards along the streamers, which have now become more
numerous and active. Slow at first, these pulsations quicken by degrees,
and after a few minutes the whole northern sky seems to be in rapid
vibration. The lively upward and downward movement of these streamers
entitles them to the name of "merry dancers" given them in northern
countries where they are frequent.

Long waves of light, quickly succeeded by others, are propagated in an
instant from the horizon to the zenith; these, in their rapid passage,
cause bends and curves in the streamers, which then, losing their
original straightness, wave and undulate in graceful folds, resembling
those of a pennant in a gentle breeze. Although the coruscations add to
the grandeur of the spectacle, they tend to destroy the diverging
streamers, which, being disconnected from the dark segment, or torn in
various ways, are, as it were, bodily carried up towards the zenith.

In this new phase the aurora is transformed into a glorious crown of
light, called the "Corona." From this corona diverge in all directions
long streamers of different colors and forms, gracefully undulating in
numerous folds, like so many banners of light. Some of the largest of
these streamers appear like fringes composed of short transverse rays of
different intensity and colors, producing the most fantastic effects,
when traversed by the pulsations and coruscations which generally run
across these rays during the great auroral displays.

The aurora has now attained its full development and beauty. It may
continue in this form for half an hour, but usually the celestial fires
begin to fade at the end of fifteen or twenty minutes, reviving from
time to time, but gradually dying out. The northern sky usually appears
covered by gray and luminous streaks and patches after a great aurora,
these being occasionally rekindled, but more often they gradually
disappear, and the sky resumes its usual appearance.

The number of auroras which develop a corona near the zenith is
comparatively small in our latitudes; but many of them, although not
exhibited on so grand a scale, are nevertheless very interesting. On
some very rare occasions the auroral display has been confined almost
exclusively to the dark segment, which appeared then as if pierced along
its border by many square openings, like windows, through which appeared
the bright auroral light.


[PLATE IV.--AURORA BOREALIS.

As observed March 1, 1872, at 9h. 25m. P.M.]


Among the many auroras which I have had occasion to observe, none are
more interesting, excepting the type first described, than those which
form an immense arch of light spanning the heavens from East to West.
This form of aurora, which is quite rare, I last observed on September
12th, 1881. All the northern sky was covered with light vapors, when a
small auroral patch appeared in the East at about 20° above the
horizon. This patch of light, gradually increasing westward, soon
reached the zenith, and continued its onward progress until it arrived
at about 20° above the western horizon, where it stopped. The aurora
then appeared as a narrow, wavy band of light, crossed by numerous
parallel rays of different intensity and color. These rays seemed to
have a rapid motion from West to East along the delicately-fringed
streamer, which, on the whole, moved southward, while its extremities
remained undisturbed. Aside from the apparent displacement of the
fringes, a singular vibrating motion was observed in the auroral band,
which was traversed by pulsations and long waves of light. The phenomena
lasted for about twenty minutes, after which the arch was broken in many
places, and it slowly vanished.

The aurora usually appears in the early part of the evening, and attains
its full development between ten and eleven o'clock. Although the
auroral light may have apparently ceased, yet the phenomenon is not at
an end, as very often a solitary ray is visible from time to time; and
even towards morning these rays sometimes become quite numerous. On some
occasions the phenomenon even continues through the following day, and
is manifested by the radial direction of the cirrus-clouds in the
heights of our atmosphere. In 1872 I, myself, observed an aurora which
apparently continued for two or three consecutive days and nights. In
August, 1859, the northern lights remained visible in the United States
for a whole week.

The height attained by these meteors is considerable, and it is now
admitted that they are produced in the rarefied air of the upper regions
of our atmosphere. From the researches of Professor Elias Loomis on the
great auroras observed in August and September, 1859, it was ascertained
that the inferior part of the auroral rays had an altitude of 46 miles,
while that of their summits was 428 miles. These rays had, therefore, a
length of 382 miles. From the observation of thirty auroral displays, it
has been found that the mean height attained by the summit of these
streamers above the Earth's surface was 450 miles.

But if the auroral streamers are generally manifested at great heights
in our atmosphere, it would appear from the observations of persons
living in the regions where the auroras are most frequent, as also from
those who have been stationed in high northern and southern latitudes,
that the phenomenon sometimes descends very low. Both Sabine and Parry
saw the auroral rays projected on a distant mountain; Ross saw them
almost at sea-level projected on the polar ice; while Wrangel, Franklin,
and others observed similar phenomena. Dr. Hjaltalin, who has lived in
latitude 64° 46' north, and has made a particular study of the aurora,
on one occasion saw the aurora much below the summit of a hill 1,600
feet high, which was not very far off.

The same aurora is sometimes observed on the same night at places very
far distant from one another. The great aurora borealis of August 28th,
1859, for instance, was seen over a space occupying 150° in
longitude--from California to the Ural Mountains in Russia. It even
appears now very probable that the phenomenon is universal on our globe,
and that the northern lights observed in our hemisphere are simultaneous
with the aurora australis of the southern hemisphere. The aurora of
September 2d, 1859, was observed all through North and South America,
the Sandwich Islands, Australia, and Africa; the streamers and
pulsations of light of the north pole responding to the rays and
coruscations of the south pole. Of thirty-four auroras observed at
Hobart Town, in Tasmania, twenty-nine corresponded with aurora borealis
observed in our hemisphere.

The auroral phenomena, although sometimes visible within the tropics,
are, however, quite rare in these regions. For the most part they are
confined within certain zones situated in high latitudes north and
south. The zone where they are most frequent in our hemisphere forms an
ellipse, which has the north pole at one of its foci; while the other is
situated somewhere in North America, in the vicinity of the magnetic
pole. The central line of the zone upon which the auroras seem to be
most frequent passes from the northern coast of Alaska through Hudson's
Bay and Labrador to Iceland, and then follows the northern coast of
Europe and Asia. The number of auroras diminishes as the observer
recedes from this zone, and it is only in exceptional cases that they
are seen near the equator. Near the pole the phenomenon is less frequent
than it is in the region described. In North America we occupy a
favorable position for the observation of auroras, as we are nearer the
magnetic poles than are the Europeans and Asiatics, and we consequently
have a greater number of auroras in corresponding latitudes.

The position of the dark auroral segment varies with the place occupied
by the observer, and its centre always corresponds with the magnetic
meridian. In our Eastern States the auroral segment appears a little to
the west of the north point; but as the observer proceeds westward it
gradually approaches this point, and is due north when seen from the
vicinity of Lake Winnipeg. At Point Barrow, in the extreme north-west of
the United States, the aurora is observed in the east. In Melville
Islands, Parry saw it in the south; while in Greenland it is directly in
the west.

It is stated that auroras are more numerous about the equinoxes than
they are at any other seasons; and also, when the earth is in perigee,
than when it is in apogee. An examination which I have made of a
catalogue by Professor Loomis, comprising 4,137 auroras observed in the
temperate zone of our hemisphere from 1776 to 1873, sustains this
statement. During this period, one hundred more auroras were recorded
during each of the months comprising the equinoxes, than during any
other months of the year; while eighty more auroras were observed when
the earth was in perigee, than when it was in apogee. But to establish
the truth of this assertion on a solid basis, more observations in both
hemispheres will be required.

The aurora is not simply a terrestrial phenomenon, but is associated in
some mysterious way with the conditions of the Sun's surface. It is a
well-known fact that terrestrial magnetism is influenced directly by the
Sun, which creates the diurnal oscillations of the magnetic needle.
Between sunrise and two o'clock, the north pole of the needle moves
towards the west in our northern hemisphere, and in the afternoon and
evening it moves the other way. These daily oscillations of the needle
are not uniform in extent; they have a period of regular increase and
decrease. At a given place the daily oscillations of the magnetic needle
increase and decrease with regularity during a period which is equal to
10⅓ years. As this period closely coincides with the Sun-spot period,
the connection between the variation of the needle and these solar
disturbances has been recognized.

Auroral phenomena generally accompany the extraordinary perturbations in
the oscillations of the magnetic needle, which are commonly called
"magnetic storms," and the greater the auroral displays, the greater are
the magnetic perturbations. Not only is the needle subject to unusual
displacements during an aurora, but its movements seem to be
simultaneous with the pulsations and waving motions of the delicate
auroral streamers in the sky. When the aurora sends forth a coruscation,
or a streamer in the sky, the magnetic needle responds to it by a
vibration. The inference that the auroral phenomena are connected with
terrestrial magnetism is further supported by the fact that the centre
of the corona is always situated exactly in the direction of that point
in the heavens to which the dipping needle is directed.

It has been found that the aurora is a periodical phenomenon, and that
its period corresponds very closely with those of the magnetic needle
and Sun-spots. The years which have the most Sun-spots and magnetic
disturbances have also the most auroras. There is an almost perfect
similarity between the courses of the three sets of phenomena, from
which it is concluded that the aurora is connected in some mysterious
way with the action of the Sun, as well as with the magnetic condition
of the earth.

A very curious observation, which has been supposed to have some
connection with this subject, was made on Sept. 1st, 1859, by Mr.
Carrington and Mr. Hodgson, in England. While these observers, who were
situated many miles from one another, were both engaged at the same time
in observing the same Sun-spot, they suddenly saw two luminous spots of
dazzling brilliancy bursting into sight from the edge of the Sun-spot.
These objects moved eastward for about five minutes, after which they
disappeared, having then traveled nearly 34,000 miles. Simultaneously
with these appearances, a magnetic disturbance was registered at Kew by
the self-registering magnetic instruments. The very night that followed
these observations, great magnetic perturbations, accompanied by
brilliant auroral displays, were observed in Europe. A connection
between the terrestrial magnetism and the auroral phenomena is further
proved by the fact that, before the appearance of an aurora, the
magnetic intensity of our globe considerably increases, but diminishes
as soon as the first flashes show themselves.

The auroral phenomena are also connected in some way with electricity,
and generate serious disturbances in the electric currents traversing
our telegraphic lines, which are thus often rendered useless for the
transmission of messages during great auroral displays. It sometimes
happens, however, during such displays, that the telegraphic lines can
be operated for a long distance, without the assistance of a battery;
the aurora, or at least its cause, furnishing the necessary electric
current for the working of the line. During auroras, the telephonic
lines are also greatly affected, and all kinds of noises and
crepitations are heard in the instruments.

Two observations of mine, which may have a bearing on the subject,
present some interest, as they seem to indicate the action of the aurora
on some of the clouds of our atmosphere. On January 6th, 1872, after I
had been observing a brilliant aurora for over one hour, an isolated
black cumulus cloud appeared at a little distance from the western
extremity of the dark auroral segment. This cloud, probably driven by
the wind, rapidly advanced eastward, and was soon followed by a
succession of similar clouds, all starting from the same point. All
these black clouds apparently followed the same path, which was not a
straight line, but parallel to and concentric with the border of the
dark auroral segment. When the first cloud arrived in the vicinity of
the magnetic meridian passing through the middle of the auroral arc, it
very rapidly dissolved, and on reaching this meridian became invisible.
The same phenomenon was observed with the succession of black clouds
following, each rapidly dissolving as it approached the magnetic
meridian. This phenomenon of black clouds vanishing like phantoms in
crossing the magnetic meridian, was observed for nearly an hour. On June
17th, 1879, I observed a similar phenomenon during a fine auroral
display. About midway between the horizon and the polar star, but a
little to the west of the magnetic meridian, there was a large black
cumulo-stratus cloud which very slowly advanced eastward. As it
progressed in that direction, its eastern extremity was dissolved in
traversing the magnetic meridian; while, at the same time, several short
and quite bright auroral rays issued from its western extremity, which
in its turn dissolved rapidly, as if burned or melted away in the
production of the auroral flame.

It seems to be a well observed fact, that during auroras, a strong
sulphurous odor prevails in high northern latitudes. According to Dr.
Hjaltalin, during these phenomena, "the ozone of the atmosphere
increases considerably, and men and animals exposed out of doors emit a
sulphurous odor when entering a heated room." The Esquimaux and other
inhabitants of the northern regions assert that great auroras are
sometimes accompanied by crepitations and crackling noises of various
sorts. Although these assertions have been denied by several travelers
who have visited the regions of these phenomena, they are confirmed by
many competent observers. Dr. Hjaltalin, who has heard these noises
about six times in a hundred observations, says that they are especially
audible when the weather is clear and calm; but that when the atmosphere
is agitated they are not heard. He compares them to the peculiar sound
produced by a silk cloth when torn asunder, or to the crepitations of
the electric machine when its motion is accelerated. "When the auroral
light is much agitated and the streamers show great movements, it is
then that these noises are heard at different places in the atmosphere."

The spectrum of the auroral light, although it varies with almost every
aurora, always shows a bright green line on a faint continuous spectrum.
In addition to this green line I have frequently observed four broad
diffused bands of greater refrangibility in the spectra of some auroras.
In two cases, when the auroras appeared red towards the west, the
spectrum showed a bright red line, in addition to the green line and the
broad bands described. These facts evidently show that the light of the
aurora is due to the presence of luminous vapors in our atmosphere; and
it may reasonably be supposed that these vapors are rendered luminous by
the passage of electric discharges through them.




THE ZODIACAL LIGHT

PLATE V


In our northern latitudes may be seen, on every clear winter and spring
evening, a column of faint, whitish, nebulous light, rising obliquely
above the western horizon. A similar phenomenon may also be observed in
the east, before day-break, on any clear summer or autumn night. To this
pale, glimmering luminosity the name of "Zodiacal Light" has been given,
from the fact that it lies in the zodiac along the ecliptic.

In common with all the celestial bodies, the zodiacal light participates
in the diurnal motion of the sky, and rises and sets with the
constellations in which it appears. Aside from this apparent motion, it
is endowed with a motion of its own, accomplished from west to east, in
a period of a year. In its motion among the stars, the zodiacal light
always keeps pace with the Sun, and appears as if forming two faint
luminous wings, resting on opposite sides of this body. In reality it
extends on each side of the Sun, its axis lying very nearly in the plane
of the ecliptic.

In our latitudes the phenomena can be observed most advantageously
towards the equinoxes, in March and September, when twilight is of short
duration. As we proceed southward it becomes more prominent, and
gradually increases in size and brightness. It is within the tropical
regions that the zodiacal light acquires all its splendor: there it is
visible all the year round, and always appears very nearly perpendicular
to the horizon, while at the same time its proportions and brilliancy
are greatly increased.


[PLATE V.--THE ZODIACAL LIGHT.

Observed February 20, 1876]


The zodiacal light appears under the form of a spear-head, or of a
narrow cone of light whose base apparently rests on the horizon, while
its summit rises among the zodiacal constellations. In general
appearance it somewhat resembles the tail of a large comet whose head is
below the horizon. The most favorable time to observe this phenomenon in
the evening, is immediately after the last trace of twilight has
disappeared; and in the morning, one or two hours before twilight
appears. When observed with attention, it is seen that the light of the
zodiacal cone is not uniform, but gradually increases in brightness
inwardly, especially towards its base, where it sometimes surpasses in
brilliancy the brightest parts of the Milky-Way. In general, its
outlines are vague and very difficult to make out, so gradually do they
blend with the sky. On some favorable occasions, the luminous cone
appears to be composed of several distinct concentric conical layers,
having different degrees of brightness, the inner cone being the most
brilliant of all. There is a remarkable distinction between the evening
and morning zodiacal light. In our climate, the morning light is pale,
and never so bright nor so extended as the evening light.

In general, the zodiacal light is whitish and colorless, but in some
cases it acquires a warm yellowish or reddish tint. These changes of
color may be accidental and due to atmospheric conditions, and not to
actual change in the color of the object. Although the zodiacal light is
quite bright, and produces the impression of having considerable depth,
yet its transparency is great, since all the stars, except the faint
ones, can be seen through its substance.

The zodiacal light is subject to considerable variations in brightness,
and also varies in extent, the apex of its cone varying in distance from
the Sun's place, from 40 to 90 degrees. These variations cannot be
attributed to atmospheric causes alone, some of them being due to real
changes in the zodiacal light itself, whose light and dimensions
increase or decrease under the action of causes at present unknown. From
the discussion of a series of observations on the zodiacal light made at
Paris and Geneva, it appears certain that its light varies from year to
year, and sometimes even from day to day, independently of atmospheric
causes. Some of my own observations agree with these results, and one of
them, at least, seems to indicate changes even more rapid. On December
18th, 1875, I observed the zodiacal light in a clear sky free from any
vapors, at six o'clock in the evening. At that time, the point of its
cone was a little to the north of the ecliptic, at a distance of about
90 degrees from the Sun's place. Ten minutes later, its summit had sunk
down 35 degrees, the cone then being reduced to nearly one-half of its
original dimensions. Ten minutes later, it had risen 25 degrees, and was
then 80 degrees from the Sun's place, where it remained all the evening.
On March 22d, 1878, the sky was very clear and the zodiacal light was
bright when I observed it, at eight o'clock. At that moment the apex of
the cone of light was a little to the south of the Pleiades, but this
cone presented an unusual appearance never noticed by me before, its
northern border appearing much brighter and sharper than usual, while at
the same time its axis of greatest brightness appeared to be much nearer
to this northern border than it was to the southern. After a few minutes
of observation it became evident that the northern border was extending
itself, as stars which were at some distance from it became gradually
involved in its light. At the same time that this border spread
northward, it seemed to diffuse itself, and after a time the cone
presented its usual appearance, having its southern border brighter and
better defined than the other. It would have been impossible to
attribute this sudden change to an atmospheric cause, since only one of
the borders of the cone participated in it, and since some very faint
stars near this northern border were not affected in the least while the
phenomenon occurred. Besides these observations, Cassini, Mairan,
Humboldt, and many other competent observers have seen pulsations,
coruscations and bickerings in the light of the cone, which they thought
could not be attributed to atmospheric causes. It has also been observed
that at certain periods the zodiacal light has shone with unusual
intensity for months together.

When this phenomenon is observed from the tropical regions, it is found
that its axis of symmetry always corresponds with its axis of greatest
brightness, and that both lie in the plane of the ecliptic, which
divides its cone into two equal parts. But when the zodiacal light is
observed in our latitude, the axis of symmetry does not correspond with
the axis of greatest brightness, and both axes are a little to the north
of this plane, the axis of symmetry being the farther removed.
Furthermore, as already stated, the southern border of the cone always
appears better defined and brighter than the corresponding northern
margin. It is very probable, if not absolutely certain, that these
phenomena are exactly reversed when the zodiacal light is observed from
corresponding latitudes in the southern hemisphere, and that there, its
axes, both of symmetry and of greatest brightness, appear south of the
ecliptic, while the northern margin is the brightest. This seems to be
established by the valuable observations of Rev. George Jones, made on
board the U. S. steam frigate Mississippi, in California, Japan, and the
Southern Ocean. "When I was north of the ecliptic," says this observer,
"the greatest part of the light of the cone appeared to the north of
this line; when I was to the south of the ecliptic, it appeared to be
south of it; while when my position was on the ecliptic, or in its
vicinity, the zodiacal cone was equally divided by this line."

Besides the zodiacal light observed in the East and West, some observers
have recognized an exceedingly faint, luminous, gauzy band, about 10 or
12 degrees wide, stretching along the ecliptic from the summit of the
western to that of the eastern zodiacal cone. This faint narrow belt has
been called the Zodiacal Band. It has been recognized by Mr. H. C.
Lewis, who has made a study of this phenomenon, that the zodiacal band
has its southern margin a little brighter and a little sharper than the
northern border. This observation is in accordance with similar
phenomena observed in the zodiacal light, and may have considerable
importance.

In 1854, Brorsen recognized a faint, roundish, luminous spot in a point
of the heavens exactly opposite to the place occupied by the Sun, which
he has called "Gegenschein," or counter-glow. This luminous spot has
sometimes a small nucleus, which is a little brighter than the rest.
Night after night this very faint object shifts its position among the
constellations, keeping always at 180 degrees from the Sun. The position
of the counter-glow, like that of the zodiacal light and zodiacal band,
is not precisely on the plane of the ecliptic, but a little to the north
of this line. It is very probable that near the equator the phenomenon
would appear different and there would correspond with this plane.

There seems to be some confusion among observers in regard to the
spectrum of the zodiacal light. Some have seen a bright green line in
its spectrum, corresponding to that of the aurora borealis; while others
could only see a faint grayish continuous spectrum, which differs,
however, from that of a faint solar light, by the fact that it presents
a well-defined bright zone, gradually blending on each side with the
fainter light of the continuous spectrum. I have, myself, frequently
observed the faint continuous spectrum of the zodiacal light, and on one
occasion recognized the green line of the aurora; but it might have been
produced by the aurora itself, as yet invisible to the eye, and not by
the zodiacal light, since, later in the same evening, there was a
brilliant auroral display. If it were demonstrated that this green line
exists in the spectrum of the zodiacal light, the fact would have
importance, as tending to show that the aurora and the zodiacal light
have a common origin.

Rev. Geo. Jones describes a very curious phenomenon which he observed
several times a little before the moon rose above the horizon. The
phenomenon consisted in a short, oblique, luminous cone rising from the
Moon's place in the direction of the ecliptic. This phenomenon he has
called the Moon Zodiacal Light. In 1874, I had an opportunity to observe
a similar phenomenon when the Moon was quite high in the sky. By taking
the precaution to screen the Moon's disk by the interposition of some
buildings between it and my eye, I saw two long and narrow cones of
light parallel to the ecliptic issuing from opposite sides of our
satellite. The phenomenon could not possibly be attributed to vapors in
our atmosphere, since the sky was very clear at the moment of the
observation. Later on, these appendages disappeared with the formation
of vapors near the Moon, but they reappeared an hour later, when the sky
had cleared off, and continued visible for twenty minutes longer, and
then disappeared in a clear sky.

Although the zodiacal light has been studied for over two centuries, no
wholly satisfactory explanation of the phenomenon has yet been given.
Now, as in Cassini's time, it is generally considered by astronomers to
be due to a kind of lens-shaped ring surrounding the Sun, and extending
a little beyond the Earth's orbit. This ring is supposed to lie in the
plane of the ecliptic, and to be composed of a multitude of independent
meteoric particles circulating in closed parallel orbits around the Sun.
But many difficulties lie in the way of this theory. It seems as
incompetent to explain the slow and rapid changes in the light of this
object as it is to explain the contractions and extensions of its cone.
It fails, moreover, to explain the flickering motions, the coruscations
observed in its light, or the displacement of its cone and of its axes
of brightness and symmetry by a mere change in the position of the
observer. Rev. Geo. Jones, unable to explain by this theory the
phenomena which came under his observation, has proposed another, which
supposes the zodiacal light to be produced by a luminous ring
surrounding the Earth, this ring not extending as far as the orbit of
the Moon. But this theory also fails in many important points, so that
at present no satisfactory explanation of the phenomenon can be given.

As the phenomenon is connected in some way with the Sun, and as we have
many reasons to believe this body to be always more or less electrified,
it might be supposed that the Sun, acting by induction on our globe,
develops feeble electric currents in the rarefied gases of the superior
regions of our atmosphere, and there forms a kind of luminous ridge
moving with the Sun in a direction contrary to the diurnal motion, and
so producing the zodiacal light. On this hypothesis, the counter-glow
would be the result of a smaller cone of light generated by the solar
induction on the opposite point of the Earth.

Plate 5, which sufficiently explains itself, represents the zodiacal
light as it appeared in the West on the evening of February 20th, 1876.
All the stars are placed in their proper position, and their relative
brightness is approximately shown by corresponding variations in
size--the usual and almost the only available means of representation.
Of course, it must be remembered that a star does not, in fact, show any
disk even in the largest telescopes, where it appears as a mere point of
light, having more or less brilliancy. The cone of light rises obliquely
along the ecliptic, and the point forming its summit is found in the
vicinity of the well-known group of stars, called the Pleiades, in the
constellation of Taurus, or the Bull.




THE MOON

PLATE VI


In its endless journey through space, our globe is not solitary, like
some of the planets, but is attended by the Moon, our nearest celestial
neighbor. Although the Moon does not attain to the dignity of a planet,
and remains a secondary body in the solar system, yet, owing to its
proximity to our globe, and to the great influence it exerts upon it by
its powerful attraction, it is to us one of the most important celestial
bodies.

While the Moon accompanies the Earth around the Sun, it also revolves
around the Earth at a mean distance of 238,800 miles. For a celestial
distance this is only a trifling one; the Earth in advancing on its
orbit travels over such a distance in less than four hours. A cannon
ball would reach our satellite in nine days; and a telegraphic dispatch
would be transmitted there in 1½ seconds of time, if a wire could be
stretched between us and the Moon.

Owing to the ellipticity of the Moon's orbit, its distance from the
Earth varies considerably, our satellite being sometimes 38,000 miles
nearer to us than it is at other times. These changes in the distance of
the Moon occasion corresponding changes from 29' to 33' in its apparent
diameter. The real diameter of the Moon is 2,160 miles, or a little over
one-quarter the diameter of our globe; our satellite being 49 times
smaller than the Earth.

The mean density of the materials composing the Moon is only
⁶⁄₁₀ that of the materials composing the Earth, and the force of
gravitation at the surface of our satellite is six times less than it is
at the surface of our globe. If a person weighing 150 lbs. on our Earth
could be transported to the Moon, his weight there would be only 25 lbs.

The Moon revolves around the Earth in about 27⅓ days, with a mean
velocity of one mile per second, the revolution constituting its
sidereal period. If the Earth were motionless, the lunar month would be
equal to the sidereal period; but owing to its motion in space, the Sun
appears to move with the Moon, though more slowly, so that after having
accomplished one complete revolution, our satellite has yet to advance
2¼ days before reaching the same apparent position in regard to the
Earth and the Sun that it had at first. The interval of time comprised
between two successive New Moons, which is a little over 29½ days,
constitutes the synodical period of the Moon, or the lunar month.

The Moon is not a self-luminous body, but, like the Earth and the
planets, it reflects the light which it receives from the Sun, and so
appears luminous. That such is the case is sufficiently demonstrated by
the phases exhibited by our satellite in the course of the lunar month.
Every one is familiar with these phases, which are a consequence of the
motion of the Moon around the Earth. When our satellite is situated
between us and the Sun, it is New Moon; since we cannot see its
illuminated side, which is then turned away from us towards the Sun.
When, on the contrary, it reaches that point of its orbit which, in
regard to us, is opposite to the Sun's place, it is Full Moon; since
from the Earth we can only see the fully illuminated side of our
satellite. Again, when the Moon arrives at either of the two opposite
points of its orbit, the direction of which from the Earth is at right
angles with that of the Sun, it is either the First or the Last Quarter;
since in these positions we can only see one-half of its illuminated
disk.

The curve described by the Moon around the Earth lies approximately in a
plane, this plane being inclined about 5° to the ecliptic. Since our
satellite, in its motion around us and the Sun, closely follows the
ecliptic, which is inclined 23½° to the equator, it results that when
this plane is respectively high or low in the sky, the moon is also high
or low when crossing the meridian of the observer. In winter that part
of the ecliptic occupied by the Sun is below the equator, and,
consequently, the New Moons occurring in that season are low in the sky,
since at New Moon our satellite must be on the same side of the ecliptic
with the Sun. But the Full Moons in the same season are necessarily high
in the sky, since a Full Moon can only occur when our satellite is on
the opposite side of the ecliptic from the Sun, in which position it is,
of course, as many degrees above the equator as the Sun is below. The
Full Moon which happens nearest to the autumnal equinox is commonly
called the Harvest Moon, from the fact that, after full, its delays in
rising on successive evenings are very brief and therefore favorable for
the harvest work in the evening. The same phenomenon occurs in every
other lunar month, but not sufficiently near the time of Full Moon to be
noticeable. When, in spring, a day or two after New Moon, our satellite
begins to show its thin crescent, its position on the ecliptic is north
as well as east of that occupied by the Sun; hence, its horns are nearly
upright in direction, and give it a crude resemblance to a tipping bowl,
from which many people who are unaware of its cause, and that this
happens every year, draw conclusions as to the amount of rain to be
expected.

One of the most remarkable features of the Moon's motions is that our
satellite rotates on its axis in exactly the same period of time
occupied by its revolution around the Earth, from which it results that
the Moon always presents to us the same face. To explain this
peculiarity, astronomers have supposed that the figure of our satellite
is not perfectly spherical, but elongated, so that the attraction of the
Earth, acting more powerfully upon its nearest portions, always keeps
them turned toward us, as if the Moon were united to our globe by a
string. It is not exactly true, however, that the Moon always presents
its same side to us, although its period of rotation exactly equals that
of its revolution; since in consequence of the inclination of its axis
of rotation to its orbit, combined with the irregularities of its
orbital motion about us, apparent oscillations in latitude and in
longitude, called librations, are created, from which it results that
nearly ⁶⁄₁₀ of the Moon's surface is visible from the Earth at
one time or another.

The Moon is a familiar object, and every one is aware that our
satellite, especially when it is fully illuminated, presents a variety
of bright and dark markings, which, from their distant resemblance to a
human face, are popularly known as "the man in the moon." A day or two
after New Moon, when the thin crescent of our satellite is visible above
the western horizon after sunset, the dark portion of its disk is
plainly visible, and appears of a pale, ashy gray color, although not
directly illuminated by the Sun. This phenomenon is due to the
Earth-shine, or to that portion of solar light which the illuminated
surface of our globe reflects to the dark side of the Moon, exactly in
the same manner that the Moon-shine, on our Earth, is due to the solar
light reflected to our globe by the illuminated Moon.

Seen with a telescope of moderate power, or even with a good
opera-glass, the Moon presents a peculiar mottled appearance, and has a
strong resemblance to a globe made of plaster of Paris, on the surface
of which numerous roundish, saucer-shaped cavities of various sizes are
scattered at random. This mottled structure is better seen along the
boundary line called the _terminator_, which divides the illuminated
from the dark side of the Moon. The line of the terminator always
appears jagged, and it is very easy to recognize that this irregularity
is due to the uneven and rugged structure of the surface of our
satellite.

A glance at the Moon through a larger telescope shows that the bright
spots recognized with the naked eye belong to very uneven and
mountainous regions of our satellite, while the dark ones belong to
comparatively smooth, low surfaces, comparable to those forming the
great steppes and plains of the Earth. When examined with sufficient
magnifying power, the white, rugged districts of the Moon appear covered
over by numerous elevated craggy plateaus, mountain-chains, and deep
ravines; by steep cliffs and ridges; by peaks of great height and
cavities of great depth. This rugged formation, which is undoubtedly of
volcanic origin, gives our satellite a desolate and barren appearance.
The rugged tract occupies more than one-half of the visible surface of
the Moon, forming several distinct masses, the principal of which occupy
the south and south-western part of the disk. That this formation is
elevated above the general level is proved by the fact that the
mountains, peaks, and other objects which compose it, all cast a shadow
opposite to the Sun; and further, that the length of these shadows
diminishes with the elevation of the Sun above the lunar horizon.

Since Galileo's time the surface of the Moon has been studied by a host
of astronomers, and accurate maps of its topographical configuration
have been made, and names given to all features of any prominence. It
may even be said that in its general features, the visible surface of
our satellite is now better known to us than is the surface of our own
Earth.

One of the most striking and common features of the mountainous
districts of the Moon, is the circular, ring-like disposition of their
elevated parts, which form numerous crater-like objects of different
sizes and depths. Many thousands of crater-like objects are visible on
the Moon through a good telescope, and, considering how numerous the
small ones are, there is, perhaps, no great exaggeration in fixing their
number at 50,000, as has been done by some astronomers. These volcanic
regions of the Moon cannot be compared to anything we know, and far
surpass in extent those of our globe. The number and size of the craters
of our most important volcanic regions in Europe, in Asia, in North and
South America, in Java, in Sumatra, and Borneo, are insignificant when
compared with those of the Moon. The largest known craters on the Earth
give only a faint idea of the magnitude of some of the lunar craters.
The great crater Haleakala, in the Sandwich Islands, probably the
largest of the terrestrial volcanoes, has a circumference of thirty
miles, or a diameter of a little less than ten miles. Some of the great
lunar craters, called walled plains, such as Hipparchus, Ptolemæus,
etc., have a diameter more than ten times larger than that of Haleakala,
that of the first being 115 miles and that of the last 100 miles. These
are, of course, among the largest of the craters of the Moon, although
there are on our satellite a great number of craters above ten miles in
diameter.

The crater-forms of the Moon have evidently appeared at different
periods of time, since small craters are frequently found on the walls
of larger ones; and, indeed, still smaller craters are not rarely seen
on the walls of these last. The walls of the lunar craters are usually
quite elevated above the surrounding surface, some of them attaining
considerable elevations, especially at some points, which form peaks of
great height. Newton, the loftiest of all, rises at one point to the
height of 23,000 feet, while many others range from ten to twenty
thousand feet in height. Several craters have their floor above the
general surface--Plato, for instance. Wargentin has its floor nearly on
a level with the summit of its walls, showing that at some period of its
history liquid lavas, ejected from within, have filled it to the brim
and then solidified. The floors of some of the craters are smooth and
flat, but in general they are occupied by peaks and abrupt mountainous
masses, which usually form the centre. Many of their outside walls are
partly or wholly covered by numerous ravines and gullies, winding down
their steep declivities, branching out and sometimes extending to great
distances from their base. It would seem that these great volcanic
mouths have at some time poured out torrents of lavas, which, in their
descent, carved their passage by the deep gullies now visible.
Sometimes, also, the crater slopes are strewn with debris, giving them a
peculiar volcanic appearance.

Notwithstanding their many points of similarity with the volcanoes of
the Earth, the lunar craters differ from them in many particulars,
showing that volcanic forces acting on different globes may produce
widely different results. For example, the floors of terrestrial craters
are usually situated at considerable elevations above the general
surface, while those of the lunar craters are generally much depressed,
the height of their walls being only about one-half the depth of their
cavities. Again, while on the Earth the mass of the volcanic cones far
exceeds the capacity of their openings, on the Moon it is not rare to
see the capacity of the crater cavities exceeding the mass of the
surrounding walls. On the Earth, the volcanic cones and mouths are
comparatively regular and smooth, and are generally due to the
accumulation of the ashes and the debris of all kinds which are ejected
from the volcanic mouths. On the Moon, very few craters show this
character, and for the most part their walls have a very different
structure, being irregular, very rugged, and composed of a succession of
concentric ridges, rising at many points to great elevations, and
forming peaks of stupendous height. Again, many of the larger
terrestrial craters have their interior occupied by a central cone, or
several such cones, having a volcanic mouth on their summits; on the
Moon such central cones are very rare. Although many of the large lunar
craters have their interior occupied by central masses which have been
often compared to the central cones of our great volcanoes, yet these
objects have a very different character and origin. For the most part,
they are mountainous masses of different forms--having very rarely any
craters on them--and seem to have resulted from the crowding and lifting
up of the crater floor by the phenomena of subsidence, of which these
craters show abundant signs. Besides, the terrestrial craters are
characterized by large and important lava streams, while on the Moon the
traces of such phenomena are quite rare, and when they are shown, they
generally differ from those of the Earth by their numerous and
complicated ramifications, and also by the fact that many of these lava
streamlets take their origin at a considerable distance from the crater
slopes, and are grooved and depressed as if the burning liquids which
are supposed to have produced them had subsequently disappeared, by
evaporation or otherwise, leaving the furrow empty.

The dark spots of the Moon, when viewed through a telescope, exhibit a
totally different character, and show that they belong to a different
formation from that of the brighter portions. These darker tracts do not
seem to have had a direct volcanic origin like the latter, but rather
appear to have resulted from the solidification of semi-fluid materials,
which have overflowed vast areas at different times. The surface of this
system is comparatively smooth and uniform, only some small craters and
low ridges being seen upon it. The level and dark appearance of these
areas led the ancient astronomers to the belief that they were produced
by a liquid strongly absorbing the rays of light, and were seas like our
seas. Accordingly, these dark surfaces were called _Maria_, or Seas, a
name which it is convenient to retain, although it is well known to have
originated in an error. The so-called seas of the Moon are evidently
large flat surfaces similar to the deserts, steppes, pampas, and
prairies of the Earth in general appearance. The great plains of the
Moon are at a lower level than that of the other formation, and that
which first attracts the observer's attention is the fact that they are
surrounded almost on all sides by an irregular line of abrupt cliffs and
mountain chains, showing phenomena of dislocation. This character of
dislocation, which is general, and is visible everywhere upon the
contours of the plains, seems to indicate that phenomena of subsidence,
either slow or rapid, have occurred on the Moon; while, at the same
time, the sunken surfaces were overflowed by a semi-fluid liquid, which
solidified afterwards. The evidences of subsidence and overflowing
become unmistakable when we observe that, along the borders of the gray
plains, numerous craters are more or less embedded in the gray
formation, only parts of the summit of their walls remaining visible, to
attest that once large craters existed there. The farther from the
border of the plain the vestiges of these craters are observed, the
deeper they are embedded in the gray formation. That phenomena of
subsidence have occurred on a grand scale on the Moon, is further
indicated by the fact that the singular systems of fractures called
clefts and rifts generally follow closely the outside border of the gray
plains, often forming parallel lines of dislocation and fractures. In
the interior regions of the gray formation, these fractures are
comparatively rare.

The gray, lava-like formation is obviously of later origin than the
mountainous system to which belong the embedded craters above described.
Its comparatively recent origin might also be inferred from the
smallness of its craters and its low ridges. The few large craters
observed on this formation evidently belong to the earlier system.

The color of this system of gray plains is far from being uniform. In
general appearance it is of a bluish gray, but when observed
attentively, large areas appear tinted with a dusky olive-green, while
others are slightly tinged with yellow. Some patches appear brownish,
and even purplish. A remarkable example of the first case is seen on the
surface, which encloses within a large parallelogram the two conspicuous
craters, Aristarchus and Herodotus. This surface evidently belongs to a
different system from that of the Oceanus Procellarum surrounding it,
as, besides its color, which totally differs from that of the gray
formation, its surface shows the rugged structure of the volcanic
formation.

When the Moon is full, some very curious white, luminous streaks are
seen radiating from different centres, which, for the most part, are
important craters, occupied by interior mountains. The great crater
Tycho is the centre of the most imposing of the systems of white
streaks. Some of the diverging rays of this great centre extend to a
distance equal to one-quarter of the Moon's circumference, or about
1,700 miles. The true nature of these luminous streaks is unknown, but
it seems certain that they have their origin in the crater from which
they diverge. They do not form any relief on the surface, and are seen
going up over the mountains and steep walls of the crater, as well as
down the ravines and on the floors of craters.

The Moon seems to be deprived of an atmosphere; or, if it has any, it
must be so excessively rare that its density is less than of the density
of the Earth's atmosphere, since delicate tests afforded by the
occultation of stars have failed to reveal its presence. Although no
atmosphere of any consequence exists on the Moon, yet phenomena which I
have observed seem to indicate the occasional presence there of vapors
of some sort. On several occasions, I have seen a purplish light over
some parts of the Moon, which prevented well-known objects being as
distinctly seen as they were at other times, causing them to appear as
if seen through a fog. One of the most striking of these observations
was made on January 4th, 1873, on the crater Kant and its vicinity,
which then appeared as if seen through luminous purplish vapors. On one
occasion, the great crater Godin, which was entirely involved in the
shadow of its western wall, appeared illuminated in its interior by a
faint purplish light, which enabled me to recognize the structure of
this interior. The phenomenon could not be attributed in this case to
reflection, since the Sun, then just rising on the western wall of the
crater, had not yet grazed the eastern wall, which was invisible. It is
not impossible that a very rare atmosphere composed of such vapors
exists in the lower parts of the Moon.

If the Moon has no air, and no liquids of any sort, it seems impossible
that its surface can maintain any form of life, either vegetable or
animal, analogous to those on the Earth. In fact, nothing indicating
life has been detected on the Moon--our satellite looking like a barren,
lifeless desert. If life is to be found there at all, it must be of a
very elementary nature. Aside from the want of air and water to sustain
it, the climatic conditions of our satellite are very unfavorable for
the development of life. The nights and days of the Moon are each equal
to nearly fifteen of our days and nights. For fifteen consecutive
terrestrial days the Sun's light is absent from one hemisphere of the
Moon; while for the same number of days the Sun pours down on the other
hemisphere its light and heat, the effects of which are not in any way
mitigated by an atmosphere. During the long lunar nights the temperature
must at least fall to that of our polar regions, while during its long
days it must be far above that of our tropical zone. It has been
calculated that during the lunar nights the temperature descends to 23°
below zero, while during the days it rises to 468°, or 256° above the
boiling point.

It has been a question among astronomers whether changes are still
taking place at the surface of the Moon. Aside from the fact that
change, not constancy, is the law of nature, it does not seem doubtful
that changes occur on the Moon, especially in view of the powerful
influences of contraction and dilatation to which its materials are
submitted by its severe alternations of temperature. From the distance
at which we view our satellite, we cannot expect, of course, to be able
to see changes, unless they are produced on a large scale. Theoretically
speaking, the largest telescopes ever constructed ought to show us the
Moon as it would appear to the naked eye from a distance of 40 miles;
but in practice it is very different. The difficulty is in the fact
that, while we magnify the surface of a telescopic image, we are unable
to increase its light; so that, practically, in magnifying an object, we
weaken its light proportionally to the magnifying power employed. The
light of the Moon, especially near the terminator, where we almost
always make our observations, is not sufficiently bright to bear a very
high magnifying power, and only moderate ones can be applied to its
study. What we gain by enlarging an object, we more than lose by the
weakening of its light. Besides, a high magnifying power, by increasing
the disturbances generally present in our atmosphere, renders the
telescopic image unsteady and very indistinct. On the whole, the largest
telescopes now in existence do not show us our satellite better than if
we could see it with the naked eye from a distance of 300 miles or more.
At such a distance only considerable changes would be visible.

Notwithstanding these difficulties, it is believed that changes have
been detected in Linné, Marius, Messier, and several other craters. An
observation of mine seems to indicate that changes have recently taken
place in the great crater Eudoxus. On February 20th, 1877, between 9h.
30m. and 10h. 30m., I observed a straight, narrow wall crossing this
crater from east to west, a little to the south of its centre. This wall
had a considerable elevation, as was proved by the shadow it cast on its
northern side. Towards its western end this wall appeared as a brilliant
thread of light on the black shadow cast by the western wall of the
crater. The first time I had occasion to observe this crater again,
after this observation, was a year later, on February 17th, 1878; no
traces of the wall were then detected. Many times since I have tried to
find this narrow wall again, when the Moon presented the same phase and
the same illumination, but always with negative results. It seems
probable that this structure has crumbled down, yet it is very singular
that so prominent a feature should not have been noticed before.


[PLATE VI.--MARE HUMORUM.

From a study made in 1875]


The "Mare Humorum," or sea of moisture, as it is called, which is
represented on Plate VI., is one of the smaller gray lunar plains. Its
diameter, which is very nearly the same in all directions, is about 270
miles, the total area of this plain being about 50,000 square miles. It
is one of the most distinct plains of the Moon, and is easily seen with
the naked eye on the left-hand side of the disk. The floor of the plain
is, like that of the other gray plains, traversed by several systems of
very extended but low hills and ridges, while small craters are
disseminated upon its surface. The color of this formation is of a dusky
greenish gray along the border, while in the interior it is of a lighter
shade, and is of brownish olivaceous tint. This plain, which is
surrounded by high clefts and rifts, well illustrates the phenomena of
dislocation and subsidence. The double-ringed crater Vitello, whose
walls rise from 4,000 to 5,000 feet in height, is seen in the upper
left-hand corner of the gray plain. Close to Vitello, at the east, is
the large broken ring-plain Lee, and farther east, and a little below,
is a similarly broken crater called Doppelmayer. Both of these open
craters have mountainous masses and peaks on their floor, which is on a
level with that of the Mare Humorum. A little below, and to the left of
these objects, is seen a deeply embedded oval crater, whose walls barely
rise above the level of the plain. On the right-hand side of the great
plain, is a long _fault_, with a system of fracture running along its
border. On this right-hand side, may be seen a part of the line of the
terminator, which separates the light from the darkness. Towards the
lower right-hand corner, is the great ring-plain Gassendi, 55 miles in
diameter, with its system of fractures and its central mountains, which
rise from 3,000 to 4,000 feet above its floor. This crater slopes
southward towards the plain, showing the subsidence to which it has been
submitted. While the northern portion of the wall of this crater rises
to 10,000 feet, that on the plain is only 500 feet high, and is even
wholly demolished at one place where the floor of the crater is in
direct communication with the plain. In the lower part of the _mare_,
and a little to the west of the middle line, is found the crater
Agatharchides, which shows below its north wall the marks of rills
impressed by a flood of lava, which once issued from the side of the
crater. On the left-hand side of the plain, is seen the half-demolished
crater Hippalus, resembling a large bay, which has its interior strewn
with peaks and mountains. On this same side can be seen one of the most
important systems of clefts and fractures visible on the Moon, these
clefts varying in length from 150 to 200 miles.




ECLIPSES OF THE MOON

PLATE VII


Since the Moon is not a self-luminous body, but shines by the light
which it borrows from the Sun, it follows that when the Sun's light is
prevented from reaching its surface, our satellite becomes obscured. The
Earth, like all opaque bodies exposed to sunlight, casts a shadow in
space, the direction of which is always opposite to the Sun's place. The
form of the Earth's shadow is that of a long, sharply-pointed cone,
which has our globe for its base. Its length, varying with the distance
of the Earth from the Sun, is, on an average, 855,000 miles, or 108
times the terrestrial diameter. This conical shadow of the Earth,
divided longitudinally by the plane of the ecliptic, lies half above and
half below that plane, on which the summit of the shadow describes a
whole circumference in the course of a year. If the Moon's orbit were
not inclined to the ecliptic, our satellite would pass at every Full
Moon directly through the Earth's shadow; but, owing to that
inclination, it usually passes above or below the shadow. Twice,
however, during each of its revolutions, it must cross the plane of the
ecliptic, the points of its orbit where this happens being called nodes.
Accordingly, if it is near a node at the time of Full Moon, it will
enter the shadow of the Earth, and become either partly or wholly
obscured, according to the distance of its centre from the plane of the
ecliptic. The partial or total obscuration of the Moon's disk thus
produced constitutes a partial or total eclipse of the Moon. The
essential conditions for an eclipse of the Moon are, therefore, that our
satellite must not only be full, but must also be at or very near one of
its nodes.

Although inferior in importance to the eclipses of the Sun, the eclipses
of the Moon are, nevertheless, very interesting and remarkable
phenomena, which never fail to produce a deep impression on the mind of
the observer, inasmuch as they give him a clear insight into the silent
motions of the planetary bodies.

At the mean distance of the Moon from the Earth, the diameter of the
conical shadow cast in space by our globe is more than twice as large as
that of our satellite. But, besides this pure dark shadow of the Earth,
its cone is enveloped by a partial shadow called "Penumbra," which is
produced by the Sun's light being partially, but not wholly, cut off by
our globe.

While the Moon is passing into the penumbra, a slight reduction of the
light of that part of the disk which has entered it, is noticeable. As
the progress of the Moon continues, the reduction becomes more
remarkable, giving the impression that rare and invisible vapors are
passing over our satellite. Some time after, a small dark-indentation,
marking the instant of first contact, appears on the eastern or
left-hand border of the Moon, which is always the first to encounter the
Earth's shadow, since our satellite is moving from west to east. The
dark indentation slowly and gradually enlarges with the onward progress
of the Moon into the Earth's shadow, while the luminous surface of its
disk diminishes in the same proportion. The form of the Earth's shadow
on the Moon's disk clearly indicates the rotundity of our globe by its
circular outline. Little by little the dark segment covers the Moon's
disk, and its crescent, at last reduced to a mere thread of light,
disappears at the moment of the second contact. With this the phase of
totality begins, our satellite being then completely involved in the
Earth's shadow.

The Moon remains so eclipsed for a period of time which varies with its
distance from the Earth, and with the point of its orbit where it
crosses the conical shadow. When it passes through the middle of this
shadow, while its distance from our globe is the least, the total phase
of an eclipse of the Moon may last nearly two hours. The left-hand
border of our satellite having gone first into the Earth's shadow, is
also the first to emerge, and, at the moment of doing so, it receives
the Sun's light, and totality ends with the third contact. The lunar
crescent gradually increases in breadth after its exit from the shadow,
and finally the Moon recovers its fully illuminated disk as before, at
the moment its western border leaves the Earth's shadow. Soon after, it
passes out of the penumbra, and the eclipse is over. In total eclipses,
the interval of time from the first to last contact may last 5h. 30m,
but it is usually shorter.

Soon after the beginning of an eclipse, the dark segment produced by the
Earth's shadow on the Moon's disk generally appears of a dark grayish
opaque color, but with the progress of the phenomenon, this dark tint is
changed into a dull reddish color, which, gradually increasing, attains
its greatest intensity when the eclipse is total. At that moment the
color of the Moon is of a dusky, reddish, coppery hue, and the general
features of the Moon's surface are visible as darker and lighter tints
of the same color. It sometimes happens, however, that our satellite
does not exhibit this peculiar coppery tint, but appears either blackish
or bluish, in which case it is hardly distinguishable from the sky.

It is very rare for the Moon to disappear completely during totality,
and even when involved in the deepest part of the Earth's shadow, our
satellite usually remains visible to the naked eye, or, at least, to the
telescope. This phenomenon is to be attributed to the fact that the
portion of the solar rays which traverse the lower strata of our
atmosphere are strongly refracted, and bend inward in such a manner that
they fall on the Moon, and sufficiently illuminate its surface to make
it visible. The reddish color observed is caused by the absorption of
the blue rays of light by the vapors which ordinarily-saturate the lower
regions of our atmosphere, leaving only red rays to reach the Moon's
surface. Of course, these phenomena are liable to vary with every
eclipse, and depend almost exclusively on the meteorological conditions
of our atmosphere.

In some cases the phase of totality lasts longer than it should,
according to calculation. This can be attributed to the fact that the
Earth is enveloped in a dense atmosphere, in which opaque clouds of
considerable extent are often forming at great elevations. Such strata
of clouds, in intercepting the Sun's light, would have, of course, the
effect of increasing the diameter of the Earth's shadow, in a direction
corresponding to the place they occupy, and, if the Moon were moving in
this direction, would increase the phase of total obscuration.

The eclipses of the Moon, like those of the Sun, as shown above, have a
cycle of 18 years, 11 days and 7 hours, and recur after this period of
time in nearly the same order. They can, therefore, be approximately
predicted by adding 18y. 11d. 7h. to the date of the eclipses which have
occurred during the preceding period. During this cycle 70 eclipses will
occur--41 being eclipses of the Sun and 29 eclipses of the Moon. At no
time can there ever be more than seven eclipses in a year, and there are
never less than two. When there are only two eclipses in a year, they
are both eclipses of the Sun.

Although the number of solar eclipses occurring at some point or other
of the Earth's surface is greater than that of the eclipses of the Moon,
yet at any single terrestrial station the eclipses of the Moon are the
more frequent. While an eclipse of the Sun is only visible on a narrow
belt, which is but a very small fraction of the hemisphere then
illuminated by the Sun, an eclipse of the Moon is visible from all the
points of the Earth which have the Moon above their horizon at the time.
Furthermore, an eclipse of the Sun is not visible at one time over the
whole length of its narrow tract, but moves gradually from one end of it
to the other; while, on the contrary, an eclipse of the Moon begins and
ends at the very same instant for all places from which it can be seen,
but, of course, not at the same local time, which varies with the
longitude of the place.


[PLATE VII.--PARTIAL ECLIPSE OF THE MOON.

Observed October 24, 1874]


The partial eclipse of the Moon, represented on Plate VII., shows quite
plainly the configuration of our satellite as seen with the naked eye
during the eclipse, with its bright and dark spots, and its radiating
streaks. This eclipse was observed on October 24th, 1874.




THE PLANETS


Around the Sun circulate a number of celestial bodies, which are called
"_Planets_." The planets are opaque bodies, and appear luminous because
their surfaces reflect the light they receive from the Sun.

The planets are situated at various distances from the Sun, and revolve
around this body in widely different periods of time, which are,
however, constant for each planet, so far as ascertained, and doubtless
are so in the other cases.

The ideal line traced in space by a planet in going around the Sun, is
called _the orbit_ of the planet; while the period of time employed by a
planet to travel over its entire orbit and return to its starting point,
is called _the sidereal revolution_, _or year_ of the planet. The
dimensions of the orbits of the different planets necessarily vary with
the distance of these bodies from the Sun, as does also the length of
their sidereal revolution.

The distance of a planet from the Sun does not remain constant, but is
subject to variations, which in certain cases are quite large. These
variations result from the fact that the planetary orbits are not
perfect circles having the Sun for centre, but curves called
"_Ellipses_," which have two centres, or foci, one of which is always
occupied by the Sun. This is in accordance with Kepler's first law.

The ideal point situated midway between the two foci is called _the
centre of the ellipse_, or _orbit_; while the imaginary straight line
which passes through both foci and the centre, with its ends at opposite
points of the ellipse, is called "_the major axis_" of the orbit. It is
also known as "_the line of the apsides_." The ideal straight line
which, in passing through the centre of the orbit, cuts the major axis
at right angles, and is prolonged on either side to opposite points on
the ellipse, is called "_the minor axis_" of the orbit.

When a planet reaches that extremity of the major axis of its orbit
which is the nearest to the Sun, it is said to be in its "_perihelion_;"
while, when it arrives at the other extremity, which is farthest from
this body, it is said to be in its "_aphelion_." When a planet reaches
either of the two opposite points of its orbit situated at the
extremities of its minor axis, it is said to be at its _mean distance_
from the Sun.

The rapidity with which the planets move on their orbits varies with
their distance from the Sun; the farther they are from this body, the
more slowly they move. The rapidity of their motion is greatest when
they are in perihelion, and least when they are in aphelion, having its
mean rate when these bodies are crossing either of the extremities of
the minor axes of their orbits.

The imaginary line which joins the Sun to a planet at any point of its
orbit, and moves with this planet around the Sun, is called "_the radius
vector_." According to Kepler's second law, whatever may be the distance
of a planet from the Sun, the radius vector sweeps over equal areas of
the plane of the planet's orbit in equal times.

There is a remarkable relation between the distance of the planets from
the Sun and their period of revolution, in consequence of which the
squares of their periodic times are respectively equal to the cubes of
their mean distances from the Sun. From this third law of Kepler, it
results that the mere knowledge of the mean distance of a planet from
the Sun enables one to know its period of revolution, and _vice versa_.

The orbit described by the Earth around the Sun in a year, or the
apparent path of the Sun in the sky, is called "_the ecliptic_." Like
that of all the planetary orbits, the plane of the ecliptic passes
through the Sun's centre. The ecliptic has a great importance in
astronomy, inasmuch as it is the fundamental plane to which the orbits
and motions of all planets are referred.

The orbits of the larger planets are not quite parallel to the ecliptic,
but more or less inclined to this plane; although the inclination is
small, and does not exceed eight degrees. On account of this inclination
of the orbits, the planets, in accomplishing their revolutions around
the Sun, are sometimes above and sometimes below the plane of the
ecliptic. A belt extending 8° on each side of the ecliptic, and,
therefore, 16° in width, comprises within its limits the orbits of all
the principal planets. This belt is called "_the Zodiac_."

Since all the planets have the Sun for a common centre, and have their
orbits inclined to the ecliptic, it follows that each of these orbits
must necessarily intersect the plane of the ecliptic at two opposite
points situated at the extremities of a straight line passing through
the Sun's centre. The two opposite points on a planetary orbit where its
intersections with the ecliptic occur, are called "_the Nodes_," and the
imaginary line joining them, which passes through the Sun's centre, is
called "the line of the nodes." The node situated at the point where a
planet crosses the ecliptic from the south to the north, is called "_the
ascending node_" while that situated where the planet crosses from north
to south, is called "_the descending node_."

The planets circulating around the Sun are eight in number, but, beside
these, there is a multitude of very small planets, commonly called
"asteroids," which also revolve around our luminary. The number of
asteroids at present known surpasses two hundred, and constantly
increases by new discoveries. In their order of distance from the Sun
the principal planets are: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus and Neptune. The orbits of the asteroids are comprised between
the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.

When the principal planets are considered in regard to their differences
in size, they are separated into two distinct groups of four planets
each, viz.: the small planets and the large planets. The orbits of the
small planets are wholly within the region occupied by the orbits of the
asteroids, while those of the large planets are wholly without this
region.

When the planets are considered in regard to their position with
reference to the Earth, they are called "inferior planets" and "superior
planets." The inferior planets comprise those whose orbits are within
the orbit of our globe; while the superior planets are those whose
orbits lie beyond the orbit of the Earth.

Since the orbits of the inferior planets lie within the orbit of the
Earth, the angular distances of these bodies from the Sun, as seen from
the Earth, must always be included within fixed limits; and these
planets must seem to oscillate from the east to the west, and from the
west to the east of the Sun during their sidereal revolution. In this
process of oscillation these planets sometimes pass between the Earth
and the Sun, and sometimes behind the Sun. When they pass between us and
the Sun they are said to be in "inferior conjunction," while, when they
pass behind the Sun, they are said to be in "superior conjunction." When
such a planet reaches its greatest distance, either east or west, it is
said to be at its greatest elongation east or west, as the case may be,
or in quadrature.

The superior planets, whose orbits lie beyond that of the Earth and
enclose it, present a different appearance. A superior planet never
passes between the Earth and the Sun, since its orbit lies beyond that
of our globe, and, therefore, no inferior conjunction of such a planet
can ever occur. When one of these planets passes beyond the Sun, just
opposite to the place occupied by the Earth, the planet is said to be in
"conjunction;" while, when it is on the same side of the Sun with our
globe, it is said to be in "opposition." While occupying this last
position, the planet is most advantageously situated for observation,
since it is then nearer to the Earth. The period comprised between two
successive conjunctions, or two successive oppositions of a planet, is
called its "synodical period." This period differs for every planet.

It is supposed that all the planets rotate from west to east, like our
globe; although no direct evidence of the rotation of Mercury Uranus,
and Neptune has yet been obtained, it is probable that these planets
rotate like the others. It results from the rotation of the planets that
they have their days and nights, like our Earth, but differing in
duration for every planet.

The axes of rotation of the planets are more or less inclined to their
respective orbits, and this inclination varies but little in the course
of time. From the inclination of the axes of rotation of the planets to
their orbits, it results that these bodies have seasons like those of
the Earth; but, of course, they differ from our seasons in duration and
intensity, according to the period of revolution and the inclination of
the axis of each separate planet.




THE PLANET MARS

PLATE VIII


Mars is the fourth of the planets in order of distance from the sun;
Mercury, Venus and the Earth being respectively the first, second and
third.

Owing to the great eccentricity of its orbit, the distance of Mars from
the Sun is subject to considerable variations. When this planet is in
its aphelion, its distance from the Sun is 152,000,000 miles, but at
perihelion it is only 126,000,000 miles distant, the planet being
therefore 26,000,000 miles nearer the Sun at perihelion than at
aphelion. The mean distance of Mars from the Sun is 139,000,000 miles.
Light, which travels at the rate of 185,000 miles a second, occupies
12½ minutes in passing from the Sun to this planet.

While the distance of Mars from the Sun varies considerably, its
distance from the Earth varies still more. When Mars comes into
opposition, its distance from our globe is comparatively small,
especially if the opposition occurs in August, as the two planets are
then as near together as it is possible for them to be, their distance
apart being only 33,000,000 miles. But if the opposition occurs in
February, the distance may be nearly twice as great, or 62,000,000
miles. On the other hand, when Mars is in conjunction in August, the
distance between the two planets is the greatest possible, or no less
than 245,000,000 miles; while, when the conjunction occurs in February,
it is only 216,000,000 miles. Hence the distance between Mars and the
Earth varies from .33 to 245 millions of miles; that is, this planet may
be 212 million miles nearer to us at its nearest oppositions than at its
most distant conjunctions.

From these varying distances of Mars from the Earth, necessarily result
great variations in the brightness and apparent size of the planet, as
seen from our globe. When nearest to us it is a very conspicuous object,
appearing as a star of the first magnitude, and approaching Jupiter in
brightness; but when it is farthest it is much reduced, and is hardly
distinguishable from the stars of the second and even third magnitude.
In the first position, the apparent diameter of Mars is 26", in the last
it is reduced to 3" only.

The orbit of Mars has the very small inclination of 1° 51' to the plane
of the ecliptic. The planet revolves around the Sun in a period of 687
days, which constitutes its sidereal year, the year of Mars being only
43 days less than two of our years.

Mars travels along its orbit with a mean velocity of 15 miles per
second, being about ⁸⁄₁₀ of the velocity of our globe in its
orbit. The synodical period of Mars is 2 years and 48 days, during which
the planet passes through all its degrees of brightness.

Mars is a smaller planet than the Earth, its diameter being only 4,200
miles, and its circumference 13,200 miles. It seems well established
that it is a little flattened at its poles, but the actual amount of
this flattening is difficult to obtain. According to Prof. Young, the
polar compression is ¹⁄₂₁₉.

The surface of this planet is a little over ²⁸⁄₁₀₀ of the
surface of our globe, and its volume is 6½ times less than that of the
Earth. Its mass is only about ⅒ while its density is about ¾ that of
the Earth. The force of gravitation at its surface is nearly ¾ of what
it is at the surface of our globe.

The planet Mars rotates on an axis inclined 61° 18' to the plane of its
orbit, so that its equator makes an angle of 28° 42' with the same
plane. The period of rotation of this planet, which constitutes its
sidereal day, is 24 h. 37 m. 23 s.

The year of Mars, which is composed of 669⅔ of these Martial days,
equals 687 of our days, this planet rotating 669⅔ times upon its axis
during this period. But owing to the movement of Mars around the Sun,
the number of solar days in the Martial year is only 668⅔, while,
owing to the same cause, the solar day of Mars is a little longer than
its sidereal day, and equals 24 h. 39 m. 35 s.

The days and nights on Mars are accordingly nearly of the same length as
our days and nights, the difference being a little less than
three-quarters of an hour. But while the days and nights of Mars are
essentially the same as ours, its seasons are almost twice as long as
those of the Earth. Their duration for the northern hemisphere,
expressed in Martial days, is as follows: Spring, 191; Summer, 181;
Autumn, 149; Winter, 147. While the Spring and Summer of the northern
hemisphere together last 372 days, the Autumn and Winter of the same
hemisphere last only 296 days, or 76 days less. Since the summer seasons
of the northern hemisphere correspond to the winter seasons of the
southern hemisphere, and vice versa, the northern hemisphere, owing to
its longer summer, must accumulate a larger quantity of heat than the
last. But on Mars, as on the Earth, there is a certain law of
compensation resulting from the eccentricity of the planet's orbit, and
from the fact that the middle of the summer of the southern hemisphere
of this planet, coincides with its perihelion. From the greater
proximity of Mars to the Sun at that time, the southern hemisphere then
receives more heat in a given time than does the northern hemisphere in
its summer season. When everything is taken into account, however, it is
found that the southern hemisphere must have warmer summers and colder
winters than the northern hemisphere.

Seen with the naked eye, Mars appears as a fiery red star, whose
intensity of color is surpassed by no other star in the heavens. Seen
through the telescope, it retains the same red tint, which, however,
appears less intense, and gradually fades away toward the limb, where it
is replaced by a white luminous ring.


[PLATE VIII.--THE PLANET MARS.

Observed September 3, 1877, at 11h. 55m. P.M.]


Mars is a very difficult object to observe, the atmosphere surrounding
it being sometimes so cloudy and foggy that the sight can hardly
penetrate through its vapors. When this planet is observed under
favorable atmospheric conditions, and with sufficient magnifying power,
its surface, which is of a general reddish tint, is found to be
diversified by white, gray and dark markings. The dark markings, which
are the most conspicuous, almost completely surround the planet. They
are of different forms and sizes, and very irregular, as can be seen on
Plate VIII., which represents one of the hemispheres of this planet.
Many of them, especially those situated in the tropical regions of the
planet, form long narrow bands, whose direction is in the main parallel
to the Martial equator.

The dusky spots differ very much, both from one another and in their
several parts, as regards intensity of shade. Some appear almost black,
while others which appear grayish, are so faint, that they can seldom be
seen. In the southern hemisphere, the darkest part of the spots is
generally found along their northern border; especially where there are
deep indentations.

Some observers have described these spots as being greenish or bluish,
but I have never been able to see the faintest trace of these colors in
them, except when they were observed close to the limb, and involved in
the greenish tinted ring which is always to be seen there. It is
probably an effect of contrast, since green and red are complementary
colors, and since this greenish tinge around the limb covers all kinds
of spots, whether white or dark. When such dark spots, involved in the
greenish tint, are carried by the rotation towards the centre of the
disk, they no longer show this greenish color. To me, these spots have
always appeared dark, and of such tints as would result from a mixture
of white and black in different proportions; except that on their
lighter portions they show some of the prevalent reddish tint of the
Martial surface. It is to be remarked that in moments of superior
definition of the telescopic image, the intensity of darkness of all the
spots is considerably increased--some of them appearing almost perfectly
black.

The markings on the surface of Mars are now tolerably well
known--especially those of its southern hemisphere, which, owing to the
greater proximity of the planet to our globe when this hemisphere is
inclined towards the earth, have been better studied. Those of the
northern hemisphere are not so well known, since when this hemisphere is
inclined towards us, the distance of Mars from the Earth is 26,000,000
miles greater, so that the occasions for observing them are not so
favorable.

Several charts of Mars are in existence, but as the same nomenclature
has not been employed in all of them, some confusion has arisen in
regard to the names given to the most remarkable features of the
planet's surface. In order to give clearness to the subject, it will be
necessary here to give a brief description of the principal markings
represented on Plate VIII. In this the nomenclature will be employed
which has been adopted by the English observers in the fine chart of Mr.
Nath. Green. The large dark spot represented on the left-hand side of
the plate is called De La Rue Ocean. The dark oval spot, isolated in the
vicinity of the centre of the disk, is called Terby Sea; while the dark,
irregular form on the right, near the border, represents the western
extremity of Maraldi Sea.

The dusky spots of Mars seem to be permanent, and to form a part of the
general surface of the planet. That several among them, at least, are
permanent, is proved by the fact that they have been observed in the
same position, and with the same general form, for over two centuries.
Yet, if we are to depend upon the drawings made fifty years ago by Beer
and Maedler, it would seem that the permanency of some of them does not
exist, since a very large spot represented by these astronomers on their
chart of Mars is not visible now. This object, which, on their map, has
its middle at 270°, should be precisely under the prominent dark oval
spot called Terby Sea, seen near the centre of the picture, and would
extend down almost as far as the northern limb. This can hardly be
attributed to an error of observation, since these observers were both
careful, and had great experience in this class of work. It is a very
singular fact that, at the very same place where Maedler represented the
spot in question, I found a conspicuous dark mark on December 16, 1881,
which was certainly not visible in 1877, during one of the most
favorable oppositions which can ever occur. The object, which is still
visible (Feb., 1882), consists of an isolated spot situated a little to
the north of Terby Sea. During the memorable opposition of 1877, I
investigated thoroughly the markings of Mars, and made over 200 drawings
of its disk, 32 of which represent the Terby Sea; but this isolated spot
was not to be seen, unless it be identified with the faint mark,
represented on the plate, which occupied its place. There cannot be the
slightest doubt that a change has occurred at that place. Changes in the
markings have also been suspected on the other hemisphere of the planet.

The well-known fact that the continents, and especially the mountainous
and denuded districts of our globe, reflect much more light than the
surfaces covered by water, has led astronomers to suppose that the dark
spots on Mars are produced by a liquid strongly absorbing the rays of
light, like the liquids on the surface of the Earth. According to this
theory the dark spots observed are supposed to be lakes, seas, and
oceans, similar to our own seas and oceans, while the reddish and
whitish surfaces separating these dark spots, are supposed to be
islands, peninsulas, and continents. This supposition seems certainly to
have a great deal of probability in its favor, although some of the
lighter markings may have a different origin, and perhaps be due to
vegetation; but no observer has yet seen in them any of the changes
which ought to result from change of seasons. Some of the changes in the
dark spots might also be attributed to the flooding or drying up of
marshes and low land. The change which I have observed lately might be
attributed to such a cause, especially as my observation was made
shortly after the spring equinox of the northern hemisphere of Mars,
which occurred on December 8th.

Besides the dark spots just described, there are markings of a different
character and appearance. Among the most conspicuous are two very
brilliant white oval spots, which always occupy opposite sides of the
planet. These two bright spots, which correspond very closely with the
poles of rotation of Mars, have been called "polar spots."

On account of the inclination of the axis of rotation of this planet to
the ecliptic, it is rare that both of these spots are visible on the
disk at the same time; and when this occurs, they are seen considerably
foreshortened, as they are then both on the limb of the planet. Usually
only one spot is visible, and it appears to its best advantage when the
region to which it belongs attains its maximum of inclination towards
the Earth.

The polar spots change considerably in size, as they do also in form.
Sometimes they occupy nearly one-third of the disk, as is proved by many
of my observations; while at other times they are so much reduced as to
be totally invisible. It is to be remarked that the reduction of these
spots generally corresponds with the summer seasons, and their
enlargement with the winter seasons of the hemispheres to which they
respectively belong. From these well-observed facts it would appear that
a relation exists between the temperature of the two hemispheres of Mars
and the variations of the white spots observed at its poles. A similar
relation is known to exist on our globe between the progress of the
seasons and the melting away and the accumulation of snow in the polar
regions. Astronomers have been led, accordingly, to attribute the polar
spots of Mars, with all their variations, to the alternate accumulation
and melting of snows. On this account, the polar spots of Mars are
sometimes also called "snow-spots."

Errors have certainly been made by astronomers in some of their
observations of the so-called polar snow-spots, other objects occupying
their place having been mistaken for them. A regular series of
observations on this planet, which I have now continued for seven years,
has revealed the fact that during the winter seasons of the southern
hemisphere of Mars, the polar spots are most of the time invisible,
being covered over by white, opaque, cloud-like forms, strongly
reflecting light. In 1877, during more than a month, I, myself, mistook
for the polar spots such a canopy of clouds, which covered at least
one-fifth of the surface of the whole disk. I only became aware of my
error when the opaque cloud, beginning to dissolve at the approach of
the Martial summer, allowed the real polar spot to be seen through its
vapors, as through a mist at first, and afterwards with great
distinctness. In this particular case, the snow-spot was considerably
smaller than the cloudy cap which covered it, and it is to be remarked
that it was not situated at the centre of this cloudy cap, but was east
of that centre; a fact which may account for the so-called polar spots
not being always observed on exactly opposite sides of the disk. From my
observations of 1877, 1878 and 1880, it appears that at the approach of
the autumnal equinox of the southern hemisphere of Mars, large, opaque
masses, like cumulus clouds in form, began to gather in the polar
regions of that hemisphere, and continued through autumn and winter,
dissolving only at the approach of spring. These clouds, which varied in
form and extent, were very unsteady at first, but as the winter drew
nearer they enlarged and became more permanent, covering large surfaces
for months at a time.

That the large white spots under consideration are real clouds in the
atmosphere of Mars, and are not due to a fall of snow, is proved by the
fact that these spots covered both seas and continents with equal
facility, even in the equatorial regions of the planet. Snow, of course,
could not cover the seas of Mars, unless these were all frozen over,
even in the equatorial zones; therefore, if the dark spots of Mars are
assumed to be due to water, these large white spots cannot well be
ascribed to snow.

The real polar spots of Mars seem to be in relief on the surface of the
planet, since the southern spot often appeared slightly shaded on the
side opposite to the Sun during my observations in 1877. In certain
cases, when they are on or very near the limb, they have been observed,
both by others and by myself, to project from the disk slightly.

The polar spots of Mars are doubtless composed of a material which, like
our snow or ice, melts under the rays of the Sun; although it seems
difficult to admit that the Martial snow is identical with our
terrestrial snow, and that it melts at a like temperature. The south
polar spot of Mars entirely disappeared from sight in its summer season
in 1877, although the planet receives less than one-half as much heat as
we receive from the Sun; yet on our globe the arctic or antarctic ices
and snow are perpetual--never melting entirely. An important fact
disclosed by the melting away of the southern polar spot is, that in
melting it is always surrounded with a very dark surface, which takes
the place of the melted portion of the spot, as observed by myself in
1877-78. When the polar spot had entirely disappeared, its place was
occupied by a very dark spot. Now, if the polar spot is really ice, and
the dark spots are actual seas, this polar spot must be situated in
mid-ocean, since, on melting away, it is replaced by a dark spot. If the
polar spots are composed of a white substance melting under the rays of
the Sun, as seems altogether probable, its melting point must be above
that of terrestrial snow.

Many of the dark spots of Mars, and especially those whose northern
border forms an irregular belt upon the equatorial regions of this
planet, are bordered on that side by a white luminous belt, following
all their sinuosities. These white borders are variable. Sometimes they
are very prominent and intensely bright, especially at some points,
which occasionally almost equal the polar spots in brilliancy; while at
other times they are so faint, that they can hardly be distinguished, or
are even invisible; although the atmosphere is clear and the dark spots
appear perfectly well defined. While these white borders were invisible,
I have sometimes watched for several hours at a time to see if I could
detect any traces of them in places where they usually appear the most
prominent, but generally without success. On a few occasions, however, I
had the good fortune to see some of these spots forming gradually in the
course of one or two hours, at places where nothing of them could be
seen before.

These whitish fringes forming and vanishing along the coasts of the
Martial seas have been very little studied by astronomers. From my
observations made during the last seven years, it appears very probable
that this belt and its white spots are mainly due to the condensation of
vapors around, and over high peaks, and extensive mountain chains,
forming the Martial sea-coasts, as the Andes and Rocky Mountains form
the sea-coasts of the Pacific Ocean. These high mountains on Mars,
condensing the vapors into fogs or clouds above them, or at their sides,
as often happens in our mountainous districts, would certainly suffice
to produce the phenomena observed. Some of the highest peaks among these
mountain chains may even have their summits covered with perpetual snow,
or some substance partaking of the nature of snow. The temporary
visibility and invisibility of the white spots seen on Mars, as well as
the rapid transformations they sometimes undergo, may be explained as
caused by clouds having a high reflective power and a liability to form
and disappear quickly.

The assumption that these irregular whitish bands and spots are formed
by the condensation of vapors on mountain chains, and elevated table
lands, is supported by my observations made in 1877 and 1879. When such
white spots were traversing the terminator at sunrise, they very often
projected far into the night side, thus indicating that they were at a
higher level than that of the general surface. Indentations in the
terminator, corresponding to large dark spots crossing its line, also
clearly indicated the depression of the dark spots below the general
surface. The highest mountainous districts thus observed on Mars, are
situated between 60° and 70° of south latitude, towards the western
extremity of Gill Land. The mountain chain, which almost completely
forms the surface of this land, is so elevated at some points, that they
not only change the form of the terminator when they are seen upon it,
but also the limb of the planet, as seen by myself. They then appear so
brilliant, that the principal summit among them has been mistaken by
several observers for the polar spot itself, as proved by the wrong
position assigned to it on their drawings. It seems probable that this
high peak, which appears always white, is constantly covered with snow,
or the similar material replacing it on Mars. This high region is
situated between longitudes 180° and 190°.

The highest mountainous parts belonging to the hemisphere represented on
Plate VIII., which are nearly always more or less visible as whitish
spots and bands, form a coast line along the northern (lower) border of
De La Rue Ocean. This great spot, which is not so simple as it has been
represented by observers, is in fact divided by two narrow isthmuses,
one in the north, the other in the east, both joining, in the interior
of the great ocean, a peninsula heretofore known as Hall Island. Upon
the south-eastern extremity of this peninsula, a white spot, called
Dawes Ice Island, was observed in 1865, but it soon disappeared, and was
after that seen only now and then. It is very probable that this
so-called Ice Island was due to clouds forming around the summit of some
high peak of this peninsula.

On the opposite hemisphere to that represented on Plate VIII., the white
fringes bordering the dark spots are much more conspicuous than they are
on this side. On the eastern side of a remarkable dark spot called
Kaiser Sea, they are very bright, and almost always present, although
they vary considerably, both in brightness and in extent. To the south
of Kaiser Sea, they are very conspicuous on the eastern border of
Lockyer Land, forming an elevated and deeply indented coast-line along
Lambert Sea. There the white spots never disappear entirely, being
always visible on the north side, where they turn westward along Dawes'
Ocean--the mountain chain attaining there its greatest altitude. Very
frequently Lockyer Land, which seems to be a vast plateau, appears
throughout white and brilliant, this occurring usually towards the
sunrise or sunset of that region, probably from the condensation of
vapors and the formation of fogs, but generally this whiteness gradually
disappears with the progress of the sun above this plateau. Inside of
the great continents of Mars these temporary white spots are not so
frequent, but when visible they occupy always the same positions--a fact
which probably indicates that they occupy the culminating points of
these continents. One of these temporary white spots inside of the
continents is represented on Plate VIII., on the left-hand side, below
De La Rue Ocean, on Maedler Continent.

Although large, opaque, cumulus-shaped, cloud-like forms are seen in the
polar regions of Mars, such forms are very seldom seen in the tropical
zones, or, at least, it appears so, from the fact that my observations,
continued during the last seven years, have disclosed no real opaque
cloudy forms there. Although the Martial sky is frequently overcast by
dense vapors or thick fogs in these regions, yet no real opaque clouds
were ever seen; the most prominent among the dusky spots being faintly
visible through the vapory veil, when they approached the centre of the
disk.

Besides these phenomena, which prove that Mars is surrounded by an
atmosphere having a great deal of similarity to our own, a further proof
is afforded by the fact that the dark spots, which appear sharply
defined and black when they are seen near the centre, become less and
less visible as they advance towards the limb, and are totally invisible
before they reach it. Moreover, the spectroscope also indicates the
existence of an atmosphere, and even the presence of watery vapor in it.
A very curious state of the Martial atmosphere is revealed by my
observations of 1877-78. During eight consecutive weeks, from December
12th to February 6th, a whole hemisphere of the planet--precisely that
represented on Plate VIII.--was completely covered by dense vapors, or a
thick fog which barely allowed the dark spots to be seen through it,
even when they were in the centre of the disk. The opposite hemisphere
of Mars appeared just as clear and calm as possible; there all the spots
and their minutest details could be seen, and when the planet was
observed at the proper time, the line separating the foggy from the
clear side was plainly visible.

The reddish tint observed on the continents of Mars has been supposed by
some astronomers to be the real color of the atmosphere of this planet.
But, for many reasons, this explanation is not acceptable. Besides the
fact that the border of the planet appears white, while it should be
more red than the other part, owing to the greater depth of atmosphere
there presented to us, the polar spots, the white bands along the
sea-coasts, and the cloud-like forms appear perfectly white, not the
slightest tint of red being visible on them, as would be the case if
these objects were seen through an atmosphere tinted red. Other
astronomers have supposed that the vegetation of this planet has a
reddish color; but this is not supported by observation. It has been
again supposed, with much more probability, that the surface of Mars is
composed of an ochreous material which gives the planet its predominant
ruddy color.

Until lately Mars was supposed to be without a satellite, but in August,
1877, Professor Hall, of the Washington Observatory, made one of the
most remarkable discoveries of the time, and found two satellites
revolving around this planet. These satellites are among the smallest
known heavenly bodies, their diameter having been estimated at from 6 to
10 miles for the outer satellite, and from 10 to 40 miles for the inner
one.

The most extraordinary feature of these bodies is the proximity of the
inner satellite to the planet, and the consequent rapidity of its
motion. The distance of the inner satellite from the centre of Mars is
about 6,000 miles, and from surface to surface it is less than 4,000
miles, or a little more than the distance from New York to San
Francisco. The shortest period of revolution of any satellite previously
known, is that of the inner satellite of Saturn, which is a little more
than 22½ hours; but the inner satellite of Mars accomplishes its
revolution in 7h. 38m., or in 17 hours less than the period of rotation
of the planet upon its axis. The period of revolution of the outer
satellite is greater, of course, and equals 30h. 7m.

From this rapidity of motion of the inner satellite of Mars, a very
curious result follows, which at first sight may appear in contradiction
with the fact that this body has a direct motion, like that of all the
planets of the solar system, and moves around Mars from west to east.
While the outer satellite of this planet, in company with all the stars
and planets, rises in the east and sets in the west, the inner
satellite, on the contrary, rises in the west and sets in the east.
Since the period of rotation of Mars is greater than is the period of
revolution of this satellite, it necessarily follows that this last body
must constantly be gaining on the rotation, and, consequently, that the
satellite sets in the east and rises in the west, compassing the whole
heavens around Mars three times a day, passing through all its phases in
11 hours, each quarter of this singular Moon lasting less than 3 hours.

It has been shown above that Mars has many points of resemblance to the
Earth. It has an atmosphere constituted very nearly like ours; it has
fogs, clouds, rains, snows, and winds. It has water, or at least some
liquids resembling it; it has rivers, lakes, seas and oceans. It has
also islands, peninsulas, continents, mountains and valleys. It has two
Moons, which must create great and rapid tides in the waters of its seas
and oceans. It has its days and nights, its warm and cold seasons, and
very likely its vegetation, its prairies and forests, like the Earth. On
the other hand, its year and seasons are double those of the Earth, and
its distance from the Sun is greater.

Is this planet, which is certainly constituted very nearly like our
globe, and seems so nearly fitted for the wants of the human race,
inhabited by animals and intelligent beings?

To answer this question, either in the negative or in the affirmative,
would be to step out of the pure province of science, and enter the
boundless domain of speculation, since no observer has ever seen
anything indicating that animal life exists on Mars, or on any other
planet or satellite. So far as observation goes, Mars seems to be a
planet well suited to sustain animal life, and we may reason from
analogy that if animal life can exist at all outside of the Earth, Mars
must have its flora and fauna; it must have its fishes and birds, its
mammalia and men; although all these living beings must inevitably be
very different in appearance from their representatives on the Earth, as
can easily be imagined from the differences existing between the two
planets. Although all this is possible, and even very probable, yet it
must be remembered that we have not the slightest evidence that it is
so; and until we have acquired this evidence, we may only provisionally
accept this idea as a pleasing hypothesis, which, after all, may be
wrong and totally unfounded.




THE PLANET JUPITER

PLATE IX


Jupiter, the giant of the planetary world, is the fifth in order of
distance from the Sun, and is next to Mars, our ruddy neighbor. To the
naked eye, Jupiter appears as a very brilliant star, whose magnitude,
changing with the distance of this planet from the Earth, sometimes
approaches that of Venus, our bright morning and evening star.

The mean distance of Jupiter from the Sun is 475,000,000 miles, but
owing to the eccentricity of its orbit, its distance varies from 452 to
498 millions of miles. The distance of this planet from the Earth varies
still more. When nearest to our globe, or in opposition, its distance is
reduced to 384,000,000 miles, and its apparent diameter increased to
50"; while when it is farthest, or in conjunction, its distance is
increased to 567,000,000 miles, and its apparent diameter reduced to
30"; Jupiter being thus 183,000,000 miles nearer our globe while in
opposition than when it is in conjunction.

This planet revolves around the Sun in 11 years, 10 months and 17 days,
or in only 50 days less than 12 terrestrial years. Such is the year of
this planet. The plane of its orbit is inclined 1° 19' to the ecliptic.
No planet, except Uranus, has an orbit exhibiting a smaller inclination.
The planet advances in its orbit at the mean rate of 8 miles a second;
which is a little less than half the orbital velocity of the Earth.

Jupiter is of enormous proportions. Its equatorial diameter measures
88,000 miles, and its circumference no less than 276,460 miles, these
dimensions being 11 times greater than those of the Earth. This planet,
notwithstanding its huge size, rotates on its axis in not far from 9h.
55m. 36s., which period constitutes its day. Owing, however, to the
changeable appearance of its surface, this period cannot be ascertained
with very great exactitude. In consequence of its rapid rotation, the
planet is far from spherical, its polar diameter being shorter than the
equatorial by about ¹⁄₁₆, or 5,500 miles. Its surface is 124
times the surface of the earth; while its volume is 1,387 times as
great. If Jupiter occupied the place of our satellite in the sky, it
would appear 40 times as large as the Moon appears to us, and would
cover a surface of the heavens 1,600 times that covered by the full
Moon, and would subtend an angle of 21°. Jupiter's mass does not
correspond with its great bulk, and is only ¹⁄₁₀₄₇ of the
mass of the Sun, and 310 times the mass of the earth; its density being
only ¼ of that of our globe. The force of gravitation at the surface of
this planet is over 2½ times what it is on the Earth, so that a
terrestrial object carried to the surface of Jupiter would weigh over
two and a half times as much as on our globe.

Observed with a telescope, even of moderate aperture, Jupiter, with its
four attending satellites and its dazzling brilliancy, appears as one of
the most magnificent objects in the sky. The general appearance of the
disk is white; but unlike that of Mars, it is brightest towards its
central parts, and a little darker around the limb, especially on the
side opposite to the Sun. Although an exterior planet, and so far from
us, Jupiter shows faint traces of phases when observed near its
quadratures, but this gibbosity of its disk is very slight, and is
indicated only by a kind of penumbral shadow on the limb.

When observed with adequate power, the disk of Jupiter is found to be
highly diversified. The principal features consist of a series of
alternate light and dark streaks or bands, disposed most of the time
parallel with the Jovian equator. These bands differ from each other in
intensity as well as in breadth; those near the equator being usually
much more prominent than those situated in higher latitudes north and
south.

The equatorial zone of Jupiter is occupied most of the time by a broad,
prominent belt 20° or 30° wide, limited on each side by a very dark
narrow streak. Between these two dark borders, but seldom occupying the
whole space between them, appears an irregular white belt, apparently
composed of dense masses of clouds strongly reflecting the Sun's light,
some of these cloudy masses being very brilliant. The spaces left
between the cloudy belt and the dark borders, usually exhibit a delicate
pink or rosy color, which produces a very harmonious effect with the
varying grayish and bluish shades of some of the belts and streaks seen
on the disk. Quite often the cloudy belt is broken up, and consists of
independent cloudy masses, separated by larger or smaller intervals,
these intervals disclosing the rosy background of this zone.

On each side of the equatorial belt there is usually a broad whitish
belt, succeeded by a narrow gray band; the space left on each hemisphere
between these last bands and the limb being usually occupied by two or
three alternate white and gray bands. A uniform gray segment usually
forms a sort of polar cap to Jupiter.

When observed under very favorable conditions, all the lighter belts
appear as if composed of masses of small cloudlets, resembling the white
opaque clouds seen in our atmosphere. This, as already stated, is
particularly noticeable on the equatorial belt. It is not unusual, when
Jupiter is in quadrature, to see some of the most conspicuous white
spots casting a shadow opposite to the Sun; a fact which sufficiently
indicates that these spots are at different levels. They probably form
the summits of vast banks of clouds floating high up in the atmosphere
of Jupiter.

What we see of Jupiter is chiefly a vaporous, cloudy envelope. If our
sight penetrates anywhere deeper into the interior, it can only be
through the narrow fissures of this envelope, which appear as gray or
dark streaks or spots. That most of the visible surface of Jupiter is
simply a cloudy covering, is abundantly proved by the proper motion of
its spots, which sometimes becomes very great.

In periods of calm, very few changes are noticeable in the markings of
the planet, except, perhaps, some slight modifications of form in the
cloudy, equatorial belt which, in general, is much more liable to
changes than the other belts. But the Jovian surface is not always so
tranquil, great changes being observed during the terrific storms which
sometimes occur on this mighty planet, when all becomes disorder and
confusion on its usually calm surface; and nothing on the Earth can give
us a conception of the velocity with which some of its clouds and spots
are animated. New belts quickly form, while old ones disappear. The
usual parallelism of the belts no more exists. Huge, white, cumulus-like
masses advance and spread out, the rosy equatorial belt enlarges
sometimes to two or three times its usual size, and occupies two-thirds,
or more, of the disk, the rosy tint spreading out in a very short time.
At times very dark bands extending across the disk are transformed into
knots or dark spots, which encircle the planet with a belt, as it were,
of jet black beads. Sometimes, also, a secondary but narrower rosy belt
forms either in the northern or the southern hemisphere, and remains
visible for a few days or for years at a time.

On May 25, 1876, I witnessed one of the grandest commotions which can be
conceived as taking place in an atmosphere. All the southern hemisphere
of Jupiter, from equator to pole, was in rapid motion, the belts and
spots being transported entirely across the disk, from the eastern to
the western limb, in one hour's time, during which the equatorial belt
swelled to twice its original breadth, towards the south.

Now, when one stops for a moment to think what is signified by that
motion of the dark spots across the little telescopic disk of Jupiter in
an hour's time, he may arrive at some conception of the magnitude of the
Jovian storms, compared with those of our globe. The circumference of
Jupiter's equator, as stated above, is 276,460 miles; half this number,
or 138,230 miles, represents the length of the equatorial line seen from
the Earth. Now, after taking into account the rotation of the planet,
which somewhat diminishes the apparent motion, we arrive at the
astonishing result that the spots and markings were carried along by
this Jovian storm, at the enormous rate of 110,584 miles an hour, or
over 30.7 miles a second. On our globe, a hurricane or tornado, which
blows at the rate of 100 miles an hour, sweeps everything before it.
What, then, must be expected from a velocity over 1,105 times as great?
Enormous as this motion may appear, its occurrence cannot be doubted,
since it is disclosed by direct observation.

The surface of Jupiter, it would seem, has its periods of calm and
activity like that of the Sun, although it is not yet known, as it is
for the latter, that they recur with approximate regularity.

My observations of this planet, which embrace a period of ten years,
seem to point in that direction, for they show, at least, that Jupiter
has its years of calm and its years of disturbances. The year 1876 was a
year of extraordinary disturbance on Jupiter. Changes in the markings
were going on all the time, and no one form could be recognized the next
day, or even sometimes the next hour, as shown above. The cloudy
envelope of the planet was in constant motion, the equatorial belt,
especially, showing the signs of greatest disturbance, being, for the
most part, two or three times as wide as in other years. After 1876 the
calm was very great on the planet, only a slight change now and then
being noticeable, the same forms being recognized day after day, month
after month, and even year after year. In one case the same marking has
been observed for seventeen consecutive months, and in another for
twenty-eight months. This state of quietude lasted until October, 1880,
when considerable commotion occurred on the northern hemisphere, where
large round black spots, somewhat resembling the Sun-spots, formed in
the cloudy atmosphere, and finally changed, towards the end of December,
into a narrow pink belt, which still exists.



[PLATE IX.--THE PLANET JUPITER.

Observed November 1, 1880, at 9h. 30m. P.M.]


The most curious marking ever seen on Jupiter is undoubtedly the great
Red Spot, observed on the southern hemisphere of this planet for the
last three years. This interesting object, seen first in July, 1878,
disappeared for a time, reappeared on September 25 of the same year, and
has remained visible until now. When seen by me in September, it was
much elongated, and sharply pointed on one side, like a spear-head, but
it subsequently acquired an irregular form, with short appendages
protruding from its northern border. At first, the changes were great
and frequent, but at length it acquired the regular oval form, which,
with but slight modifications, it has retained until now. During the
month of November, 1880, I noticed two small black specks upon this Red
Spot, and they were seen again in January of the succeeding year, by Mr.
Alvan Clark, Jr. When the spot had attained its oval shape, it appeared
part of the time surrounded with a white luminous ring of cloudy forms
which, however, was changing more or less all the time, being sometimes
invisible. The color of this curious spot is a brilliant rosy red,
tinged with vermilion, and altogether different in shade from the
pinkish color of the equatorial belt. The size of the spot varies, but
of late its changes have been slight. Its longer diameter may be
estimated at 8,000 miles, and the shorter at 2,200 miles. The Red Spot
is represented on Plate IX. with its natural color, and as it appears at
the moments most favorable for observation. In ordinary cases its color
does not appear so brilliant, but paler.

It is difficult to account for the color of the equatorial belt and that
of the Red Spot; but it is known, at least, that the material to which
they are due cannot be situated at the level of the general surface
visible to us, and especially that of the cloudy forms of the equatorial
zone. Undoubtedly the red layer lies deeper than the superficial
envelope of the planet, although it does not seem to be very deeply
depressed.

Jupiter is attended by four satellites, which revolve around the planet
at various distances, and shine like stars of the 6th and 7th magnitude.
It is said that under very favorable circumstances, and in a very clear
sky, the satellites can be seen with the naked eye, but this requires
exceptionally keen eyes, since the glare of the planet is so strong as
to overpower the comparatively faint light of the satellites. However, I
myself have sometimes seen, without the aid of the telescope, two or
three of the satellites as a single object, when they were closely
grouped on the same side of Jupiter.

The four moons of Jupiter are all larger than our Moon, except the
first, which has about the same diameter. They range in size from 2,300
to 3,400 miles in diameter, the third being the largest; the
determination of their diameter is by no means accurate, however, as it
is difficult to measure such small objects with precision. Their mean
distance from the centre of Jupiter varies from 267,000 to 1,192,000
miles, the first satellite, the nearest to the planet, being a little
farther from Jupiter then our satellite is from us. The four satellites
revolve around the planet in orbits whose planes have a slight
inclination to the equator of Jupiter, and consequently to the ecliptic.
The diameter of the largest satellite is nearly half that of the Earth,
or 3,436 miles; while its volume is five times that of our Moon. The
period of revolution of these satellites varies from 1d. 18h. for the
first, to 16d. 16h. for the last.

Owing to the slight inclination of the plane of their orbits to that of
the planet, the three first satellites, and generally the fourth, pass
in front of the disk and also through the shadow of the planet at every
revolution, and are accordingly eclipsed. Their passages behind
Jupiter's disk are called occultations; those in front of it, transits.
The eclipses, the occultations and the transits of the moons of Jupiter
are interesting and important phenomena; the eclipses being sometimes
observed for the rough determination of longitudes at sea.

The satellites in transit present some curious phenomena. When they
enter the disk, they appear intensely luminous upon its grayish border;
but as they advance, they seem by degrees to lose their brightness,
until they finally become undistinguishable from the luminous surface of
Jupiter. It sometimes happens, however, that the first, the third and
the fourth satellites, after ceasing to appear as bright spots, continue
to be visible as dark spots upon the bright central portions of the
planet's disk; but in these cases their disks appear smaller than the
shadows they cast. Undoubtedly these satellites have extensive
atmospheres, since they sometimes pass unperceived across the central
parts of Jupiter, this being probably when their atmospheres are
condensed into clouds, strongly reflecting light; while when these
clouds are absent, we can see their actual surface, with traces of the
dark spots upon them similar to those on Mars.

From the variation in the brightness of these satellites, which is said
to be always observed in the same part of their orbit, William Herschel
was led to suppose that these bodies, like our Moon, rotate upon their
axes in the same period in which they move round the planet, so that
they always present the same face to Jupiter; but these conclusions have
been denied. From my observations it is apparent, however, that the
light reflected by them varies in intensity as well as in color. But
this is rather to be attributed to the presence of an atmosphere
surrounding these bodies, which when cloudy reflects more light than
when clear, with corresponding changes in the color of the light.

The satellites in transit are sometimes preceded or followed, according
to the position of the Sun, by a round black spot having about the same
size as the satellite itself. This black spot is the shadow of the
satellite cast on the vapory envelope of Jupiter, similar to the shadow
cast by the Moon on the Earth, during eclipses of the Sun; in fact, all
the Jovian regions traversed by these shadows have the Sun totally
eclipsed. Sometimes it happens that the shadow appears elliptical. This
occurs either when it is observed very near the limb, or when entering
upon a round, cloud-like spot. This effect is attributable to the
perspective under which the shadow is seen on the spherical globe or
spot.

The proper motion of the satellites in the Jovian sky is much more rapid
than that of the Moon in our sky. During one Jovian day of ten hours,
the first satellite advances 84°; the second, 42°; the third, 20° and
the fourth, 9°. The first satellite passes from New Moon to its first
quarter in a little more than a Jovian day, while the fourth occupies
ten such days in attaining the same phase.

In density, as well as in physical constitution, Jupiter differs widely
from the interior planets, and especially from the Earth; and, as has
been shown, it is surrounded by a dense, opaque, cloudy layer, which is
almost always impenetrable to the sight, and hides from view the
nucleus, which we may conceive to exist under this vaporous envelope. In
1876, the year of the great Jovian disturbances, I observed frequently
in the northern hemisphere of the planet a very curious phenomenon,
which seems to prove that its cloudy envelope is at times partially
absent in some places, its vapors being apparently either condensed, or
transported to other parts of its surface, and that, therefore, a
considerable part of the real globe of the planet was visible at these
places. The phenomenon consisted in the deformation of the northern
limb, which had a much shorter radius on all of this hemisphere situated
northward of the white belt which adjoins the equatorial zone. The
deformation of the limb on both sides, where it passed from a longer to
a shorter radius, was abrupt, and at right angles to the limb, forming
there a steplike indentation which was very prominent. The polar segment
having a smaller radius, appeared unusually dark, and was not striped,
as usual, but uniform in tint throughout. On September 27th, the third
satellite passed over this dark segment, and emerged from the western
border, a little below the place where the limb was abruptly deformed,
as above described. When the satellite had fully emerged from this limb,
it was apparent that if the portion of the limb having a longer radius
had been prolonged a little below, and as far as the satellite, it would
have enclosed it within its border, and thus retarded the time of
emersion. The depth of deformation of the limb was accordingly greater
than the diameter of the third satellite, and certainly more than 4,000
miles. That the phenomenon was real, is proved by the fact that the
egress of this satellite occurred at least four minutes sooner than the
time predicted for it in the American Ephemeris. Other observations seem
to point in the same direction, since some of the satellites which were
occulted have been seen through the limb of Jupiter by different
astronomers, as if this limb was sometimes semi-transparent. Another
observation of mine seems to confirm these conclusions. On April 24th,
1877, at 15h. 25m. the shadow of the first satellite was projected on
the dark band forming the northern border of the equatorial belt, the
shadow being then not far from the east limb. Close to this shadow, and
on its western side, it was preceded by a secondary shadow, which was
fainter, but had the same apparent size. This round dark spot was not
the satellite itself, as I had supposed at first, since this object was
yet outside of the planet, on the east, and entered upon it only at 16h.
4m. I watched closely this strange phenomenon, and at 16h. 45m., when
the shadow had already crossed about ¾ of the disk, it was still
preceded by the secondary, or mock shadow, as it may be called; the same
relative distance having been kept all the while between the two
objects, which had therefore traveled at the same rate. It is obvious
that this dark spot could not be one of the planet's markings, since the
shadow of the first satellite moves more quickly on the surface of
Jupiter than a spot on the same surface travels by the effect of
rotation, so that in this case the shadow would soon have passed over
this marking, and left it behind, during the time occupied by the
observation. From these observations it seems very probable that Jupiter
has a nucleus, either solid or liquid, which lies several thousand
mites below the surface of its cloudy envelope. It is also probable that
the uniformly shaded dark segment seen in 1876, was a portion of the
surface of this nucleus itself. When the cloudy envelope is
semi-transparent at the place situated on a line with an occulted
satellite and the eye of an observer, this satellite may accordingly
remain visible for a time through the limb, as shown by observation. The
phenomenon of the mock shadow may also be attributed to a similar cause,
where semi-transparent vapors receive the shadow of a satellite at their
surface, while at the same time part of this shadow, passing through the
semi-transparent vapors, may be seen at the surface of the nucleus, or
of a layer of opaque clouds situated at some distance below the surface.

Some astronomers are inclined to think that Jupiter is at a high
temperature, and self-luminous to a certain extent. If this planet is
self-luminous to any degree, we might expect that some light would be
thrown upon the satellites when they are crossing the shadow cast into
space by the planet; but when they cross this shadow they are totally
invisible in the best telescopes, a proof that they do not receive much
light from the non-illuminated side of Jupiter. It would, indeed, seem
probable that some of the intensely white spots occasionally seen on the
equatorial belt of the planet are self-luminous in a degree, yet not
enough to render the satellites visible while they are immersed in
Jupiter's shadow. It does not seem impossible that the planet should
have the high temperature attributed to it, when we remember the
terrific storms observed in its atmosphere, which, owing to the great
distance of Jupiter from the Sun, do not seem to be attributable to this
body, but rather to some local cause within the envelope of the planet.

Astronomy, which is a science of observation, is naturally silent with
regard to the inhabitants of Jupiter. If there are any such inhabitants,
they are confined to the domain of conjecture, under the dense cloudy
envelope of the planet. The conditions of habitability on Jupiter must
differ very widely from those of our globe. Comparatively little direct
light from the Sun reaches the surface of the globe of Jupiter, except
that which passes through the narrow openings forming the dark clouds.
All the rest of the planet's surface, being covered perpetually by
opaque clouds, receives only diffused light. On Jupiter there are
practically no seasons, since its axis is nearly perpendicular to its
orbit. The force of gravity on the surface of Jupiter being more than
double what it is on the Earth, living bodies would there have more than
double the weight of similar bodies on the Earth. Furthermore, Jupiter
only receives 0.011 of the light and heat which we receive from the Sun;
and its year is nearly equal to 12 of our years. If there are living
beings on Jupiter, they must, then, be entirely different from any known
to us, and they may have forms never dreamed of in our most fantastic
conceptions.

The two round black spots represented towards the central parts of Plate
IX. are the shadows of the first and second satellite; while the two
round white spots seen on the left of the disk, are the satellites
themselves, as they appeared at the moment of the observation. The first
satellite and its shadow are the nearest to the equator; while the
second satellite and its shadow are higher, the last being projected on
the Great Red Spot.[2] The row of dark circular spots represented on the
northern, or lower hemisphere, when they first appeared, had some
resemblance to Sun-spots without a penumbra, with bright markings around
them, resembling faculæ. These round spots subsequently enlarged
considerably, until they united along the entire line, encircling the
planet, and finally forming a narrow pink belt, which is still visible.


[Footnote 2: By an accidental error in enlarging the original drawing,
the satellites and shadows appear in Plate IX. of double their actual
size. The error is one easy of mental correction.]




THE PLANET SATURN

PLATE X


Saturn, which is next to Jupiter in order of distance from the Sun,
while not the largest, is certainly the most beautiful and interesting
of all the planets, with his grand and unique system of rings, and his
eight satellites, which, like faithful servants, attend the planet's
interminable journey through space.

Seen with the naked eye, Saturn shines in the night like a star of the
first magnitude, whose dull, soft whiteness is, however, far from
attaining the brilliancy of Venus or Jupiter, although it sometimes
approaches Mars in brightness. Saturn hardly ever exhibits the
phenomenon of scintillation, or twinkling, a peculiarity which makes it
easily distinguishable among the stars and planets of the heavens.

The synodical period of Saturn occupies 1 year and 13 days, so that
every 378 days, on an average, this planet holds the same position in
the sky relatively to the Sun and the Earth.

The mean distance of Saturn from the Sun is a little over 9½ times that
of our globe, or 872,000,000 miles. Owing to the orbital eccentricity,
this distance may increase to 921,000,000 miles, when the planet is in
aphelion; or decrease to 823,000,000 miles, when it is in perihelion;
Saturn being therefore 98,000,000 miles nearer to the Sun when in
perihelion than in aphelion. If gravitation were free to exert its
influence alone, Saturn would fall into the Sun in 5 years and 2 months.

The distance of Saturn from the Earth varies, according to the position
of the two planets in their respective orbits. At the time of
opposition, when the Earth lies between the Sun and Saturn, this
distance is smallest; while, on the contrary, at the time of
conjunction, when the Sun lies between the Earth and Saturn, it is
greatest. Owing, however, to the eccentricity of the orbits of Saturn
and our globe, and the inclination of their planes to each other, and
owing also to the variable heliocentric longitude of the perihelion, the
distance of the two planets from each other at their successive
conjunctions and oppositions is rendered extremely variable. At present
it is when the oppositions of Saturn occur in December that this planet
comes nearest to us; while when the conjunctions take place in June, the
distance of Saturn from the Earth is the greatest possible. In the
former case the distance of the planet from our globe is only
730,000,000 miles; while in the last it is 1,014,000,000 miles, the
difference between the nearest and farthest points of Saturn's approach
to us being no less than 284,000,000 miles, or over three times the mean
distance of the Sun from the Earth.

From the great variations in the distance of Saturn from the Earth,
necessarily result corresponding changes in the brightness and apparent
diameter of this body. When it is farthest from us, its angular diameter
measures but 14"; while, when it is nearest, it measures 20".

The orbit of Saturn is inclined 2°30' to the ecliptic, and its
eccentricity, which equals 0,056, is over three times that of the
Earth's orbit.

This planet revolves around the Sun in a period of 29 years and 5½
months, or 10,759 terrestrial days, which constitutes its sidereal year.
The extension of the immense curve forming the orbit of this planet, is
no less than 5,505,000,000 miles, which is traversed by the planet with
a mean velocity of a little less than 6 miles per second, or three times
less than the motion of our globe in space.

The real dimensions of the globe of Saturn are not yet known with
accuracy, and the equatorial diameter has been variously estimated by
observers, at from 71,000 to 79,000 miles. If we adopt the mean of these
numbers, 75,000 miles, the circumference of the Saturnian equator would
measure 235,620 miles, or 9½ times the circumference of our globe; the
surface of Saturn would be 86 times, and its volume over 810 times that
of the Earth.

However great the volume of Saturn, its mass is proportionally small,
being only 90 times greater than that of our globe; the mean density of
the materials composing this planet being less than that of cork, and
only 0.68 the density of water. The force of gravitation at the surface
of Saturn is greater, by a little over ⅑, than it is at the surface of
the Earth; a body falling in a vacuum at its surface, would travel 17.59
feet during the first second.

From observations of markings seen on the surface of Saturn, and from
the study of their apparent displacements on the disk, William Herschel
found that the planet rotated upon its axis in 10h. 16m. 0.24s. Since
Herschel's determination, new researches have been made, and lately,
Professor Hall, noticing a bright spot, followed it for nearly a month,
observing its transits across the central meridian of the disk. From
these observations he has obtained for the rotation period 10h. 14m.
23.8s., a result which agrees very closely with that obtained 82 years
earlier by Herschel, considering the fact that the markings from which
the period of rotation is ascertained are not fixed on the planet, but
are always more or less endowed with proper motion. The velocity of
rotation at the equator is 21,538 miles per hour, or nearly 6 miles per
second.

The axis of rotation of Saturn is inclined 64° 18' to the plane of the
orbit, so that its equator makes an angle of 25° 42' with the same
plane. The seasons of this planet therefore present greater extremes of
temperature than those of the Earth, but not quite so great variations
as the seasons of Mars.

The globe of Saturn is not a perfect sphere, but its figure is that of
an oblong spheroid, flattened at the poles. The polar compression of
Saturn is greater than that of any other planet, surpassing even that of
Jupiter. Though not yet determined with a great degree of accuracy, the
compression is known to be between ²⁄₁₈ and ⅒ of the equatorial
diameter; that is, a flattening of about 3,894 miles, at each pole, the
polar diameter being 7,788 miles shorter than the equatorial.

The internal condition of the planet Saturn, whether solid, liquid or
gaseous, cannot be discovered from the examination of its surface, as
its globe is enwrapped in a dense opaque layer of vapors and cloud-like
forms, through which the sight fails to penetrate. The appearance of
this vapory envelope is like that of _cumulus_ clouds, and one of its
characteristics is to arrange itself into alternate bright and dark
parallel belts, broader than those seen on Jupiter, and also more
regular and dark. These belts, which are parallel to the equator of the
planet, vary in curvature with the inclination of its axis of rotation
to the line of sight.

The belts of Saturn, like those of Jupiter, are not permanent, but keep
changing more or less rapidly. Sometimes they have been observed to be
quite numerous; while at other times they are few. Occasionally
conspicuous white or dark spots are seen on the surface, although the
phenomenon is quite rare. It is from the observation of such spots that
Saturn's period of rotation has been determined, as stated above. The
equatorial zone of Saturn always appears more white and brilliant than
the other parts, as it also appears more mottled and cloud-like. In late
years the globe has been characterized, and much adorned, by a pale
pinkish tint on its equatorial belt, resembling that of Jupiter, but
somewhat fainter. On either side of the equatorial belt there is a
narrower band, upon which the mottled appearance is visible. Below
these, one or two dark belts, separated by narrow white bands, are
usually seen; but, of late, the bands have been less numerous, being
replaced in high latitudes by a dark segment, which forms a polar cap to
Saturn. The globe of Saturn does not anywhere appear perfectly white,
and when compared with its ring, it looks of a smoky yellowish tint,
which becomes an ashy gray on its shaded parts. It usually appears
darker near the limb than in its central portions; although on some
occasions I have seen portions of the limb appear brighter, as if some
white spots were traversing it.

Some observers have seen the limb deformed and flattened at different
places, and W. Herschel even thought such a deformation to be a
permanent feature of this globe, which he termed diamond-shaped, or
"square shouldered." But this was evidently an illusion, since the
planet's limb usually appears perfectly elliptical, although it
occasionally appears as if flattened at some points, especially where it
comes in apparent contact with the shadow cast by the globe on the ring,
as observed by myself many times. But with some attention, it is
generally found that this deformation is apparent rather than real, and
is caused by the passage of some large dark spots over the limb, which
is thus rendered indistinguishable from the dark background upon which
it is projected.

What distinguishes Saturn from all known planets, or heavenly bodies,
and makes it unique in our universe, is the marvelous broad flat ring
which encircles its equator at a considerable distance from it. With a
low magnifying power this flat ring appears single, but when carefully
examined with higher powers, it is found to consist of several distinct
concentric rings and zones, all lying nearly in the same plane with the
planet's equator.


[PLATE X.--THE PLANET SATURN.

Observed on November 30, 1874, at 5h. 30m. P.M.]


At first sight only two concentric rings are recognized, the _outer_ and
the _middle_, or _intermediary_, which are separated by a wide and
continuous black line, called the _principal division_. This line, and
indeed all the features of the surface of the rings are better seen, and
appear more prominent on that part of the ring on either side called the
_ansa_, or handle. Besides these two conspicuous rings, a third, of very
dark bluish or purplish color, lies between this middle ring, to which
it is contiguous, and the planet. This inner ring, which is quite wide,
is called the _gauze_ or _dusky ring_. Closer examination shows that the
outer ring is itself divided by a narrow, faint, grayish line called the
pencil line, which, from its extreme faintness, is only visible on the
ansæ. Moreover, the middle ring is composed of three concentric zones,
or belts, which, although not apparently divided by any interval of
space, are distinguished by the different shadings of the materials
composing them. The outer zone of this compound middle ring is, by far,
the brightest of all the system of rings and belts, especially close to
its external border, where, on favorable occasions, I have seen it
appear on the ansæ as if mottled over, and covered throughout with
strongly luminous cloud-like masses. On the ansæ of the double outer
ring, similar cloudy forms have also been seen at different times. The
second zone of the middle ring is darker than the first, the innermost
being darker still. All the characteristic points which have thus been
described, are shown in Plate X.

Although suspected in 1838, the dusky ring was not recognized before
1850, when G. P. Bond discovered it with the 15-inch refractor of the
Cambridge Observatory. It was also independently discovered the same
year in England by Dawes and Lassell. The dusky ring differs widely in
appearance and in constitution from the other rings, inasmuch as these
last are opaque, and either white or grayish, while the former is very
dark, and yet so transparent that the limb of the planet is plainly seen
through its substance. On particularly favorable occasions, the
appearance of this ring resembles that of the fine particles of dust
floating in a ray of light traversing a dark chamber. Whatever may be
the material of which this ring is composed, it must be quite rarefied,
especially towards its inner border, which appears as if composed of
distinct and minute particles of matter feebly reflecting the solar
light. That the inner part of the dusky ring is composed of separate
particles, is proved by the fact that the part of the ring which is seen
in front of the globe of Saturn has its inner border abruptly deflected
and curved inward on entering upon the disk, causing it to appear
considerably narrower than it must be in reality, a peculiarity which is
shown in the Plate. This phenomenon may be attributed to an effect of
irradiation, due to the strong light reflected by the central parts of
the ball, which so reduces the apparent diameter of the individual
particles that they become invisible to us, especially those near the
inner border, which are more scattered and less numerous than elsewhere.

The dusky ring, which was described by Bond, Lassell and other
astronomers as being equally transparent throughout all its width, has
not been found so by me in later years. The limb of the planet, seen by
these observers through the whole width of the dusky ring in 1850, could
not be traced through its outer half by myself in 1872 and 1874, and
this with the very same instrument used by Bond in his observations of
1848 and 1850. Moreover, I have plainly seen that its transparency was
not everywhere equal, but greatest on the inner border, from which it
gradually decreases, until it becomes opaque, as proved by the gradual
loss of distinctness of the limb, which vanishes at about the middle of
the dusky ring. These facts, which have been well ascertained, prove
that the particles composing this ring are not permanently located, and
are undergoing changes of relative position. It will be shown that the
surface of the other rings is also subject to changes, which are
sometimes very rapid.

The globe of Saturn is not self-luminous, but opaque. It shines by the
solar light, as is proved by the shadow it casts opposite the Sun upon
the ring. Although receiving its light from the Sun, Saturn does not
exhibit any traces of phases, like the other planets nearer to the Sun,
owing to its great distance from the Earth. When near its quadratures,
however, the limb opposite to the Sun appears much darker, and shows
traces of twilight. As far as can be ascertained, the rings, with the
exception of the inner one, are opaque, as proved by the strong shadow
which they cast on the globe of Saturn.

The shadows cast by the planet on the ring, and by the ring on the
planet, are very interesting phenomena, inasmuch as they enable the
astronomer to recognize the form of the surface which receives them. The
shadow cast by the ring on the ball is not quite so interesting as the
other, although it has served to prove that the surface of this globe is
not smooth, as is likewise suggested by its mottled appearance. I have
sometimes found, as have also other observers, that the outline of this
shadow upon the ball was irregular and indented, an observation which
proves either that the surface of the ball is irregular, or that the
border of the ring casting the shadow was jagged. The shadow of the
globe on the rings has much more interest, as it enables us to get at
some knowledge of the form of the surface of the rings, which otherwise
is very difficult to discover, owing to the oblique position in which we
always see them.

In general, the shadow of the ball on the middle ring has its outline
concave towards the planet; while on the outer ring it is usually
slanting, and at a greater distance from the limb than on the middle,
and dusky rings. This form of the shadow evidently proves that the
middle ring stands at a higher level than the two others, especially
towards its outer margin. The system seems to increase gradually in
thickness from the inner border of the dusky ring to the vicinity of the
outer margin of the middle ring, after which it rapidly diminishes on
this border, while the surface of the outer ring is almost level.

But this surface is by no means fixed, as its form sometimes changes, as
proved by my observations and those of others. As may be noticed on
Plate X., the outline of the shadow of the planet on the rings is
strongly deviated towards the planet, near the outer margin of the
middle ring; the notch indicating an abrupt change of level, and a rise
of the surface at that point. Some observers have endeavored to explain
these deviations by the phenomena of irradiation, from which it would
follow that the maximum effect of deviation should be observed where the
ring is the brightest, which does not accord with observation; as the
deepest depression in the shadow is not to be found usually at the
brightest part, which is towards the outer border of the middle ring,
but occurs near its centre. From these observations it is undoubtedly
established that the surface of the rings is far from being flat
throughout, and is, besides, not permanent, but changes, as would, for
instance, the surface of a large mass of clouds seen from the top of a
high mountain. In general, the system is thickest not very far from the
outer border of the intermediary ring.

Some interesting phenomena which I had occasion to observe before and
after the passage of the Sun through the plane of the rings, on February
6th, 1878, conclusively show that the surface of this system cannot be
of a uniform level, but must be thicker towards the outer border of the
middle ring, thence gradually sloping towards the planet. Many of my
observations irresistibly lead to this conclusion. As it would, however,
be out of place to have them recorded here in detail, I will simply give
one of the most characteristic among them.

From December 18th, 1877, when the Sun was about 41' above the plane of
the rings, to February 6th, 1878, the day of its passage through their
plane, the illuminated surface of this system gradually decreased in
breadth with the lowering of the Sun, until it was lost sight of,
February 5th, on the eve of the passage of the Sun through their plane.
The phenomenon in question consisted in the gradual invasion of their
illuminated surface by what appeared to be a black shadow, apparently
cast by the front part of the outer portion of the middle ring the
nearest to the Sun. On January 25th, when the elevation of the Sun above
the plane of the rings was reduced to 15', the shadow thus cast had
extended so far on their surface that it reached the shadow cast by the
globe on the opposite part of the ring in the east, and accordingly the
remaining portion of the illuminated surface of the eastern ansa then
appeared entirely disconnected from the ball, by a large dark gap,
corresponding in breadth to that of the globe's shadow on the rings. On
February 4th, when the Sun was only 5' above the plane of the rings,
their illuminated and only visible surface was reduced to a mere thread
of light, which on the 5th appeared broken into separate points. It is
evident that the phenomenon was not caused by the obliquity of the ring
as seen from our globe, since the elevation of the Earth above the plane
of the rings--which on December 18th was 3° 20'--was still 1° 20' on
the 4th of February. In ordinary circumstances, when the Sun is a little
more elevated, and the rings seen at this last angle, they appear quite
broad and conspicuous, and even the dark open space separating the dusky
ring from the planet is perfectly visible on the ansæ, where the
Earth's elevation above their plane is reduced to 40'. It is also
evident that the phenomenon was not to be attributed to the reduction of
the light which they received from the Sun, although the illumination in
February might be expected to be comparatively feeble, since the Sun
then shone upon the rings so obliquely; yet (on the supposition that
their surface is flat) they should have been illuminated throughout, and
if not very brightly, sufficiently so, at least, to make them visible
and as bright as was the narrow thread of light observed on the 4th of
February. The phenomenon actually observed may be explained most readily
by assuming, as other phenomena also indicate, that the surface of the
ring is not flat, but more elevated towards, or in the vicinity of its
outer border, from which place it slopes inwardly towards the planet. On
this assumption, it is evident that the elevated part of the ring the
nearest to the Sun would cast a shadow, which, with the increasing
obliquity of the Sun, would gradually cover the whole surface comprised
within the elevated part, and thus become invisible to us. Several
observations made by Bond and other observers undoubtedly show the same
phenomenon, and do not seem to be intelligible on any other supposition.
From my observations made in 1881 it would appear, however, that the
opposite surfaces of the rings do not exactly correspond in form, but
this may not be a permanent feature, as the surface of this system is
subject to changes, as already shown.

The dimensions of the rings are great, the diameter of the outer one
being no less than 172,982 miles, the distance from the centre of the
globe to the outer border of the system being, therefore, 86,491 miles.
The breadth of the outer ring is 9,941 miles; that of the principal
division, 2,131 miles; that of the middle ring, 19,902 miles, and that
of the dusky ring, 8,772 miles. The breadth of all the rings taken
together is, therefore, 40,746 miles. The interval between the surface
of Saturn and the inner border of the dusky ring is 7,843 miles.

The thickness of the system of rings has been variously estimated by
astronomers, on account of the great difficulties attending its
determination. While Sir John Herschel estimated it at more than 250
miles, G. P. Bond reduces it to 40 miles. Both of these numbers are
evidently too small, as so slight a thickness cannot explain the
observed phenomenon of the shadow cast by a portion of the ring on its
own surface, when the Sun is very low in its horizon, as shown above.

The plane of the system of rings is inclined 27° to the planet's orbit,
and is parallel, or at least very nearly so, with the equator of the
planet, passing, therefore, through its centre, and dividing its globe
into northern and southern hemispheres. Seen from the Earth, a portion
of the ring always appears projected in front of the planet, thus
concealing a small part of its globe, while the opposite portion passes
behind the globe, which hides it from sight.

As the plane of the ring is not affected by the motion of the planet
around the Sun, but always remains parallel to itself, it follows that
as Saturn advances in its orbit the rings must successively present
themselves to us under various angles of inclination, appearing,
therefore, more or less elliptical, and presenting two maxima and two
minima of inclination in the course of one of its revolutions. As the
revolution of Saturn is accomplished in 29½ years, the maxima and the
minima must recur every 14 years and 9 months; the maxima being
separated from the minima by an interval of 7 years and 4½ months.

When Saturn arrives at the two opposite points of its orbit, where the
major axis of its ring is at right angles to the line joining its centre
to that of the Sun, the ring, which is then viewed at an inclination of
27°, the greatest angle at which it can ever be seen, has reached its
maximum opening, the smaller diameter of its ellipse being then about
half that of the larger. At this moment the outer ring projects north
and south beyond the globe, which is then completely enclosed in its
ellipse. The maximum opening of the northern surface of the ring takes
place, at present, when Saturn arrives in longitude 262°, in the
constellation Sagittarius, and that of the southern surface when it
arrives in longitude 82° in the constellation Taurus. When, on the
contrary, Saturn reaches the two opposite points of its orbit, where the
plane of its ring is parallel to the line joining its centre to that of
the Sun, the opening vanishes, as only the thin edge of the ring is then
presented to the Sun and receives its light, the rest being in darkness.
At this moment the ring disappears, except in the largest telescopes,
where it is seen as an exceedingly thin thread of light; and the
Saturnian globe, having apparently lost its ring, appears solitary in
the sky, like the other planets. The disappearance of the ring from this
cause occurs now when Saturn arrives at 90° from either of the
positions of maximum inclination, that is, in longitude 352° in the
constellation Pisces, and in longitude 172° in the constellation Leo.

When the planet is in any other position than one of these last two,
either the northern or the southern surface of the ring is illuminated
by the Sun, while the opposite surface is in the night, and does not
receive any direct sunlight. At the time of the passage of the plane of
the ring through the Sun's centre, a change takes place in the
illumination of the ring. If it is the northern surface which has
received the rays of the Sun during the previous half of the Saturnian
year, at the moment the plane has passed the centre of the Sun, the
southern surface, after having been buried in darkness for 14¾ years,
sees the dawn of its long day of the same length. Such a phenomenon will
not occur until 1892, when the passage of the Sun from the northern to
the southern side of the ring will close in twilight the day commenced
in 1878.

Aside from the periodic disappearance of the ring, resulting from the
passage of the Sun through its plane, the ring may also disappear from
other reasons. Just before or just after the time of the passage of the
Sun through the plane of the ring, the Earth and the Sun may occupy such
positions, that while the one is north of the plane of the ring, the
other is south of it, or vice versa, in which event the ring becomes
invisible, because its dark and non-illuminated surface is presented to
us. The ring may also become invisible to us when the Earth passes
through its plane.

Since the distance from Saturn to the Sun is to the distance of the
Earth from this last body as 9.54 is to 1; and since the circumference
of a circle increases in the same proportion as its radius, it follows
that the diameter of the Earth's orbit projected on the orbit of Saturn
would occupy only part of the latter, or about 12° 2', this being 6°
1' on either side of the nodes of the rings. To describe such an arc on
its orbit, it takes Saturn almost 360 days on an average, or almost a
complete year; the Earth describing therefore almost a whole revolution
around the Sun during the time it takes Saturn to advance 12° 2' on its
orbit. Then, when Saturn occupies a position comprised within an arc 6°
1' from either side of the nodes of its ring, the Earth, by its motion,
is liable to encounter the plane of the ring, when therefore it will
only present its thin edge to us, and becomes invisible. At least one
such encounter is unavoidable within the time during which Saturn
occupies either of these positions on its orbit; while three frequently
happen, and two are possible.

The natural impression received by looking at the rings, while seeing
the ponderous globe of Saturn enclosed in its interior, is that this
gigantic, but very delicate structure, in order to avoid destruction,
must be endowed with a swift movement of rotation on an axis
perpendicular to its plane, and that the centrifugal force thence
arising counterbalances the powerful attraction of the planet, and thus
keeps the system in equilibrium.

Theoretically, the rotation of the rings is admitted by every
astronomer, as being an essential condition to the existence of the
system, which otherwise, it is thought, would fall upon the planet.
Although the rotation of the rings seems so probable that it is
theoretically considered as certain, yet its existence has not been
satisfactorily demonstrated by direct observation, which alone can
establish it on a firm basis as a matter of scientific knowledge.

The determination of the period of rotation of the rings, which is
supposed to be 10h. 32m. 15s., rests only on the observations of W.
Herschel, made in 1790, from the apparent displacement of irregularities
on the ring; but his results have been contradicted by other
observations, and even by those of Herschel himself, made in later
years.

Although the system of rings is very nearly concentric with the globe of
Saturn, yet the coincidence is not considered as mathematically exact.
It seems to have been satisfactorily demonstrated by direct observations
that the centre of gravity of the system oscillates around that of the
planet, thus describing a minute orbit. This peculiarity is in
accordance with theory, which has shown it to be essential to the
stability of the system.

Besides its system of rings, which makes Saturn the most remarkable
planet of the solar system, this globe is attended by eight satellites,
moving in orbits whose planes very nearly coincide with the plane of the
rings, except that of the most distant one, which has an inclination of
about 12° 14'. In the order of their distance from the planets, the
satellites of Saturn are as follows: Mimas, Enceladus, Tethys, Dione,
Rhea, Titan, Hyperion and Iapetus. The three first satellites are nearer
to Saturn than the Moon is to the Earth; while Iapetus, the farthest, is
9½ times the distance of our satellite from us. All the satellites,
with the exception of the farthest, move more rapidly around Saturn than
the Moon moves around the Earth; while Iapetus, on the contrary, takes
almost three times as long to make one revolution.

The period of revolution of the four inner satellites is accomplished in
less than three days, that of Mimas being only a little more than 22
hours. From such swiftness of motion, it is easily understood how short
must be the intervals between the different phases of these satellites.
Mimas, for instance, passes from New Moon to First Quarter in less than
6 hours.

The distance of the nearest satellite from the planet's surface is
84,000 miles, and its distance from the outer ring only 36,000 miles. It
is difficult to determine the diameter of objects so faint and distant
as are some of these satellites, but the diameter of Titan, the largest
of all, is pretty well known, and estimated to be ¹⁄₁₆ the
diameter of the planet, or more than half the diameter of our globe.

Iapetus is subject to considerable variations in brilliancy, and as the
maxima and minima always occur when this satellite occupies the same
parts of its orbit, it was conjectured by W. Herschel that, like our
Moon, it turns once upon its axis during each of its revolutions about
the planet. It has been shown by my observations, that Iapetus attains
its maximum brightness a little before it reaches its greatest western
elongation, and its minimum on the opposite side.

As the planes of the orbits of the satellites are inclined to the
planet's orbit, it follows that their transits, occultations and
eclipses, are only possible when Saturn is near its equinoxes. Passages
of the satellites and their shadows across the disk, although rare, have
been observed, and they somewhat resemble the phenomena exhibited by the
satellites of Jupiter in transit. When the Earth is very near the plane
of the rings, the satellites, except the farthest, appear to be in a
straight line nearly coincident with the plane of the rings, and are
seen occasionally moving along the thin edge of the rings, appearing as
luminous beads moving on a thread of light.

Owing to the considerable inclination of the axis of rotation of Saturn
to its orbit, the seasons of this planet must have greater extremes of
temperature than those of the Earth. As the year of Saturn consists of
25,217 Saturnian days, each season, on the average, is composed of 6,304
Saturnian days.

To an observer on Saturn, the immense arches formed by its rings would
appear as objects of great magnificence, spanning the sky like soft
colorless rainbows. Moreover, the eight moons, several of which are
always visible, would be of the highest interest, with their swift
motions and rapid phases. Mimas, traveling in its orbit at the rate of
16 of arc per minute of time, moves over a space equal to the apparent
diameter of our Moon in two minutes, or at the rate of 16° an hour.

Owing to the globular form of Saturn, the rings would be invisible in
latitudes situated above 65° from its equator, and their apparent form
and breadth would naturally vary with the latitude. At 63° only a very
small portion of the outer ring would be visible above the equatorial
horizon, where it would appear as a small segment of a circle. At 62°
the principal division would just graze the horizon. At 46° the outer
portion of the dusky ring would become visible, while at 35° its inner
edge would appear above the horizon. From 65° of latitude down to the
equator, the arches of the rings would be seen more and more elevated
above the equatorial horizon, but at the same time that they are seen
higher up, their apparent breadth gradually diminishes, owing to the
effect of foreshortening, and at the equator itself the system would
only present its thin edge to view.

During the summer seasons of either hemisphere of Saturn, the surface of
the rings turned towards such hemisphere, being fully illuminated by the
Sun, is visible from these regions. In the day time its light must be
feeble and similar to the light reflected by our Moon during sunshine;
but at night the system would display all its beauty, and the different
rings, with their divisions and their various reflective powers, must
present a magnificent sight.

During the nights of the long winter seasons on Saturn, on the contrary,
the surface of the rings turned towards the hemisphere undergoing
winter, receives no light from the Sun, and is invisible, or very nearly
so, except towards morning and evening, when it may be faintly
illuminated by the secondary light which it receives from the
illuminated globe of Saturn. Although dark and invisible, the rings may
make their form apparent at night by the absence of stars from the
region which they occupy in the sky. Again, in other seasons, the days
present very curious phenomena. In consequence of the diurnal rotation
of the planet, the Sun seems to move in circular arcs, which, owing to
the inclination of Saturn's axis, are more or less elevated above its
horizon, according to the position of the planet in its orbit. As such
arcs described by the Sun in the sky of Saturn are liable to encounter
the rings, the Sun in passing behind them becomes eclipsed. It must be a
magnificent spectacle to witness the gradual disappearance of the fiery
globe behind the outer ring, and its early reappearance, but for a
moment only, through the narrow gap of the principal division; to see it
vanish again behind the middle ring, to reappear a little later through
the semi-transparent dusky ring, but very faint and red colored at
first; and then, gradually brighten up, and finally emerge in all its
beauty from the inner edge of the dusky ring.

It is in latitude 23° that the rings produce the most prolonged
eclipses of the Sun. During a period equivalent to ten of our
terrestrial years, such eclipses continually succeed each other with but
very short periods of interruption; and even during a long series of
rotations of Saturn, the Sun remains completely invisible in those
regions where the apparent arcs which it describes coincide with the
arcs of the rings. In neighboring latitudes, the eclipses of the Sun,
although still frequent, would have a shorter and shorter duration as
the observer should travel north or south. These eclipses of the Sun
must produce a partial darkness of the regions involved in the shadow of
the rings, which may be compared to the darkness produced on our globe
by a total eclipse of the Sun. The frequent recurrence of these
eclipses, and their comparatively long duration in some regions, must
still further reduce the duration of the short Saturnian days.

The globe of Saturn, as already shown, casts a shadow on the rings,
which, according to the position of the planet in its orbit, either
extends across their whole breadth, or covers only a part of their
surface. The shadow on the rings rising in the east after sunset,
ascends to the culminating point of their arcs in the sky, in 2h. 34m.,
and as rapidly descends on the western horizon, to disappear with
sunrise. This shadow, when projected on the rings in the sky, must be
hardly distinguishable from the dark background of the heavens, except
from the absence of stars in the regions which it occupies. It must
appear as a large dark gap, separating the rings into two parts, and
constantly moving from east to west. Possibly the refraction of the
solar rays, in passing through Saturn's atmosphere, may cast some
colored light on the rings, similar to that observed on the Moon during
its eclipses.

An observer on the rings would behold phenomena still more curious, a
long day of 14¾ years being followed by a long night of 14¾ years. The
long days of Saturn's rings are, however, diversified by numerous
eclipses of the Sun, which regularly occur every 10¼ hours; the
phenomenon being due to the interposition of the globe of Saturn between
the rings and the Sun. These eclipses produce partial obscurations of
their surface, lasting from 1½ to 2 hours at a time. Although the
surface of the rings never receives direct sunlight during their long
nights, yet they are not plunged all the time in total darkness, as they
receive some reflected light from that part of the globe of Saturn which
is illuminated by the Sun. To the supposed observer on the rings, during
every 10¼ hours, the immense globe would exhibit continually changing
phases. At first he would see a point of light rapidly ascending from
the horizon, and appearing under the form of a half crescent of
considerable radius; 5⅛ hours later, the crescent having gradually
increased, would appear as a half circle, covering ⅛ of the visible
heavens, its surface being more than 20,000 times as large as the
surface of the Moon. Upon this brilliantly illuminated semi-circle would
be projected the shadows of the rings, appearing as black belts
separated by a narrow luminous band.

It is very difficult for one to conceive how such a delicate structure,
as the system of rings appears to be, can keep together in equilibrium
and avoid destruction from the powerful attraction of the planet on one
side and the disturbing influence of the satellites on the other. To
explain it, several hypotheses have been advanced. The rings were first
supposed to be solid, and upon this supposition Laplace determined the
necessary conditions for their equilibrium; the most important of which
require that the cross section of the rings should be an ellipse of
irregular curvature, and having its major axis directed towards the
centre of the planet, and also that the system should rotate upon an
axis perpendicular to the plane of the rings. This theory was superseded
by another, which supposed the rings to be fluid. This one was soon
rejected for a third, assuming the system to be composed of vapors or
gases; and more recently, all these theories were considered untenable,
and replaced by a fourth, which supposes the system of rings to be made
up of a congregation of innumerable small, independent bodies, revolving
around Saturn in concentric zones. Naturally, such a divergence of
opinion can only result from our comparative ignorance of the subject,
and sufficiently indicates our inability to explain the phenomena; and
it must be admitted that, so far, nothing is certainly known about this
strange system. We shall probably remain in the same uncertainty until
the rotation of the rings is ascertained by direct observations. It is
pretty certain, however, that none of these theories account for the
observed phenomena in their details, although a partial explanation may
be obtained by borrowing something from each hypothesis.

It has been conjectured, and a theory has been advanced, that the
breadth of the whole ring system is gradually increasing inwards, and
that it will come in contact with the planet in about 2,150 years; but
the question seems to have been settled in the negative by the elaborate
measurements of the English observers. It is likely that the increase is
only in the defining power of the instruments.




COMETS

PLATE XI


Among the celestial phenomena, none are more interesting than those
mysterious apparitions from the depths which unexpectedly display their
strange forms in our familiar constellations, through which they wander
for a time, until they disappear like phantoms.

A comet, with its luminous diffused head, whence proceeds a long vapory
appendage gradually fading away in the sky, presents an extraordinary
aspect, which may well astonish and deeply impress the observer.
Although these visitors from infinite space do not now inspire dread, as
in by-gone times, yet, owing to the mystery in which the phenomenon is
still involved, the apparition of a large comet, even in our days, never
fails to create a profound sensation, and in some cases that unconscious
fear which results from the unknown.

The effect of such a spectacle largely depends upon its rarity; but
since the telescope has been applied to the sounding of the heavens, it
has been found that the appearance of comets is by no means an unusual
occurrence. If so few comets, comparatively, are seen, it is because
most of them are telescopic objects, and are therefore invisible to the
naked eye. Most of the telescopic comets are not only too faint to be
perceived by the unaided eye, but are insignificant objects, even when
observed through the largest telescopes.

It was Kepler's opinion that comets are as numerous in the sky as fishes
are in the ocean. Undoubtedly the number of these bodies must be great,
considering that we can only see them when they come into the
neighborhood of the Earth, and that many even here remain invisible, or
at least pass unperceived. That many of them have passed unperceived
heretofore, is proved by the fact that the number of those observed
becomes greater every year, with the increase of the number of
instruments used in their search. The number of comets observed with the
naked eye during historic times is nearly 600, and that of telescopic
comets, which, of course, all belong to the last few centuries, is more
than 200, so that we have a total number of about 800 comets of which
records have been kept. From theoretical considerations, Lambert and
Arago estimated their entire number at several millions, but such
speculations have generally no real value, since they cannot be
established on a firm basis.

Comets remain visible for more or less time, according to their size and
the nature and position of their orbits, but in general, the large ones
can be followed with the telescope for several months after they have
become invisible to the naked eye. The comet of 1861, for example,
remained telescopically visible for a year, and that of 1811, for 17
months after disappearing from ordinary sight.

While a comet remains visible, it appears to revolve daily about us like
the stars in general; but it also moves among the constellations, and
from this movement its orbit may be computed like that of a planet. From
the apparent diurnal motion of a comet with the heavens, result the
changes of position which it seems to undergo in the course of a night.
The direction of the head and tail of a comet, of course, has only
changed in regard to the horizon, but not in regard to the sky, in which
they occupy very nearly the same position throughout a given night, and
even for many nights in succession.

The movements of the comets in their orbits are, like those of the
planets, in accordance with Kepler's laws, the Sun occupying one of the
foci of the orbit they describe; but the orbits of comets differ,
however, in several points from those of the planets. Their eccentricity
is always great, being sometimes apparently infinite, in which case the
orbit is said to be parabolic, or hyperbolic; but the smallness of the
portion of a cometary orbit which can ordinarily be observed, makes it
difficult to determine this with certainty. Again, while the planetary
orbits are usually near the plane of the ecliptic, those of comets
frequently have great inclinations to that plane, and even when the
inclination is less than 90°, the comet may have a retrograde movement,
or, in other words, a movement contrary to the course in which all the
planets revolve about the Sun.

Notwithstanding these differences between the elements of the orbits of
the comets and those of the planets, the fact that each has the Sun in
one focus indicates that the body moving in it is a member of the solar
system, either for the time, or permanently, according to the nature of
its orbit.

A distinction may accordingly be made between the comets which are
permanent members of our solar system and those which are only
accidental or temporary visitors. Those moving in elliptical orbits
around the Sun, like the planets, and therefore having a determinate
period of revolution, from which the time of their successive returns
may be predicted, are permanent members of our system, and are called
periodic comets. All comets moving in parabolical or hyperbolical
curves, are only temporary members of the solar system, being apparently
strangers who have been diverted from their courses by some disturbing
influence. No comet is classed as periodical which does not follow a
perceptibly elliptical orbit. Any comet passing around the Sun at the
mean distance of the Earth from this body, with a velocity of 26 miles
per second, will fly off into infinite space, to return to us no more.

The time of revolution of the different periodic comets thus far
observed varies greatly, as do also the distances to which they recede
from the Sun at aphelion. Whilst the period of revolution of Encke's
comet, the shortest thus far known, is only 3½ years, that of the comet
of 1844, II., is 102,000 years; and whilst the orbit of the first is
comprised within the orbit of Jupiter, that of the last extends to a
distance equal to 147 times the distance of Neptune from the Sun. But so
vast an orbit cannot be accurately determined from the imperfect data at
our disposal.

The periodic comets are usually divided into two classes. The comets
whose orbits are within the orbit of Neptune are called interior comets,
while those whose orbits extend beyond that of Neptune are called
exterior comets. The known interior periodic comets are twelve in
number, while, including all the cases in which there is some slight
evidence of elliptic motion, the number of exterior comets observed is
six or seven times as great. The periodic comets of short period are
very interesting objects, inasmuch as by their successive returns they
afford an opportunity to calculate their motions and to observe the
physical changes which they undergo in their intervals of absence.

From observation of the periodic comets, it has been learned that the
same comet never presents twice the same physical appearance at its
different returns, its size, shape and brilliancy varying so greatly
that a comet can never be identified by its physical characters alone.
It is only when its elements have been calculated, and are found to
agree with those of a cometary orbit previously known, that the two
comets can be identified one with the other. There are reasons to
believe that, in general, comets decrease in brightness and size at each
of their successive returns, and that they are also continually losing
some of their matter as they traverse their orbits.

When very far away from us, all comets appear nearly alike, consisting
of a faint nebulosity, of varying dimensions. When a comet first appears
in the depths of space, and travels towards the Sun, it generally
resembles a faint, uniformly luminous nebulosity, either circular or
slightly elongated in form. As it approaches nearer to the Sun, a slight
condensation of light appears towards its centre, and as it draws still
nearer, it becomes brighter and brighter, and in condensing forms a kind
of diffused luminous nucleus. At the same time that the comet acquires
this concentration of light, the nebulosity gradually becomes elongated
in the direction of the Sun. These effects generally go on increasing so
long as the comet is approaching the Sun; the condensation of light
sometimes forms a bright nucleus, comparable to a very brilliant star,
while the elongation becomes an immense appendage or tail. When the
comet has passed its perihelion and recedes from the Sun, the inverse
phenomena are observed; the comet, decreasing in brightness, gradually
loses its nucleus and tail, resumes its nebulous aspect, and finally
vanishes in space, to appear again in due course, if it chance to be a
periodic comet. While all comets become brighter in approaching the Sun,
they do not all, however, develop a large tail, some of them showing
only a slight elongation.

When a comet is first discovered with the telescope at a great distance
from the Sun, it is difficult to predict whether it will become visible
to the naked eye, or will remain a telescopic object, as it is only in
approaching the Sun that these singular bodies acquire their full
development. Thus, Donati's comet, whose tail became so conspicuous an
object at its full appearance in 1858, remained two months after its
discovery by the telescope without any indication of a tail. The comet
of Halley, which before and after its return in 1759, remained five
years inside of the orbit of Saturn, showed not the least trace of its
presence during the greater part of this time. Nothing but calculation
could then indicate the position in the sky of this invisible object,
which was so prominent when it approached the Sun.

Another curious phenomenon exhibited by comets, and first noticed by
Valz, is that in approaching the Sun the nebulosity composing these
bodies contracts, instead of dilating, as would be naturally supposed
from the greater amount of solar heat which they must then receive. In
receding from the Sun, on the contrary, they expand gradually. As comets
approach the Sun, the tail and nucleus are developed, while the
nebulosity originally constituting these comets contracts, as if its
material had been partly consumed in this development. In a certain
sense it may be said that the comets are partly created by the Sun; in
more exact terms, the changes of form which they undergo are induced by
the Sun's action upon them at different distances and under varying
conditions. Moreover, they are rendered visible by its influence,
without which they would pass unperceived in our sky. When a comet
disappears from view, it is not because its apparent diameter is so much
reduced by the distance that it vanishes, but rather on account of the
diminution of its light, both that which it receives from the Sun, and
its own light; these bodies being in some degree self-luminous, as will
be shown below.

The large comets, such as can be seen with the naked eye, always show
the following characteristics, on examination with the telescope. A
condensation of light resembling a diffused star forms the brightest
part of the comet, this condensation being situated towards the
extremity the nearest to the Sun. It is this starlike object which is
called the _nucleus_. The nucleus seems to be entirely enclosed in a
luminous vapory envelope of the same general texture, called the _coma_.
This envelope, which is quite variable in brightness and form, is
brightest next to the nucleus, and gradually fades away as it recedes
from it. The _nucleus_ and the _coma_, considered as a whole, constitute
the _head_ of a comet. From the head of a comet proceeds a long trail of
pale nebulous light, which usually grows wider, but fainter, as it
recedes from the nucleus, and insensibly vanishes in the sky. This
delicate appendage, or tail, as it is commonly called, varies very much
in size and shape, not only in different comets, but in the very same
comet, at different times. Its direction is generally opposite to that
of the Sun from the head of the comet.

The nuclei vary very much in brightness, in size and in shape; and while
in some telescopic comets they are either absent or barely
distinguishable as a small condensation of light, in bright comets they
may become plainly visible to the naked eye, and they sometimes even
surpass in brightness the most brilliant stars of the heavens. But
whatever may be the size of cometary nuclei, they are subject to sudden
and rapid changes, and vary from day to day. Sometimes they appear
exceedingly brilliant and sharply outlined, while at other times they
are so dim and diffused that they are hardly distinguishable from the
coma of which they seem then to form a part.


[PLATE XI.--THE GREAT COMET OF 1881.

Observed on the night of June 25-26 at 1h. 30m. A.M.]


From my observations upon the comets which have appeared since the year
1873, it is apparent that the changes in the nucleus, coma and tail, are
due to a solar action, which contracts or expands these objects in such
a manner that the nuclei become either bright and star-like, or dim and
diffused, in a very short time. I had excellent opportunity, especially
in the two large comets of 1881, to observe some of these curious
changes, a description of which will give an idea of their extent and
rapidity. On July 2d, 1881, at 9 o'clock, the nucleus of comet 1881,
III., which is represented on Plate XI., appeared sharply defined,
bright and considerably flattened crosswise; but half an hour later it
had considerably enlarged and had become so diffused that it could
hardly be distinguished from the coma, with which it gradually blended.
It is perhaps worth mention that, at the time this last observation was
made, an aurora borealis was visible. This comet 1881, III., underwent
other very important changes of its nucleus, coma and tail. On June
25th, the nucleus, which was bright and clearly defined, was ornamented
with four bright diverging conical wings of light, as shown on Plate XI.
On the 26th these luminous wings had gone, and the nucleus appeared
one-third smaller. On the 28th it had enlarged, but on the 29th its
shape was considerably altered, the nucleus extending in one direction
to three or four times its diameter on previous nights, and being
curved, so as to resemble a comma. On the 6th of July the nucleus of
this comet showed the greatest disturbances. The nucleus, which had
appeared perfectly round on the evening of the 5th, was found much
elongated at 10 o'clock on the 6th, forming then a straight, acute, and
well-defined wedge of light, inclined upwards to the left. The length of
the nucleus, at this time, was three or four times its ordinary
diameter. At the same time rapid changes occurred; the strangely shaped
nucleus soon became unsteady, extending and contracting alternately, and
varying greatly in brightness. At 10h. 45m., the elongated nucleus, then
gently curved, took the shape of a succession of luminous knots, which
at times became so brilliant and distinct that they seemed to be about
to divide and form separate nuclei; but such a separation did not
actually occur, at least while I was observing. While these important
changes were going on in the comet, a bright auroral arch appeared in
the north, which lasted only a short time. On July 7th, the sky being
cloudy, no observations were made, but on the 8th I observed the comet
again. The nucleus had then resumed its circular form, but it was yet
very unsteady, being sometimes small, bright and sharp, while a few
seconds later it appeared twice as large, but dim in outlines; and
sometimes an ill-defined secondary nucleus appeared at its centre. On
several occasions the nucleus appeared as if it were double, one nucleus
being apparently projected partly upon the other.

The nuclei of comets are sometimes very small, and in other cases very
large. Among those which have been measured, the nucleus of the comet of
1798, I., was only 28 miles in diameter, but that of Donati's comet, in
1858, was 5,600 miles, and that of the comet of 1845 was 8,000 miles in
diameter.

The coma of comets is found to be even more variable than the nucleus.
The changes observed in the coma are generally in close connection with
those of the nucleus and tail, the same perturbations affecting
simultaneously the whole comet. While the coma of the comet of 1847 was
only 18,000 miles in diameter, that of Halley's comet, in 1835, was
357,000 miles, and that of the comet of 1811 was 1,125,000 miles in
diameter. In general, as already stated, the coma of a comet decreases
in size in approaching the Sun. That of Encke's comet, which, on October
9th, 1838, had a diameter of 281,000 miles, gradually decreased at a
daily mean rate of 4,088 miles in going towards the Sun; so that, on
December 17th, when the distance of the comet from the Sun was more than
four times less than it was on the first date, its diameter was reduced
to 3,000 miles.

The form of the coma, in that part which is free from the tail, is in
general a portion of a circle, but is sometimes irregular, with its
border deformed. Thus, the border of the coma of Halley's comet was
depressed at one point towards the Sun. I observed a similar phenomenon
in Coggia's comet, with the great refractor of the Harvard College
Observatory, on July 13th, 1874, when its border appeared deeply
depressed on the side nearest to the Sun, as if repelled by this body.
The coma of comet 1881, III., showed also very singular outlines on the
nights of the 25th and 26th of June, when its border was so deeply
depressed that the coma appeared as if it were double. Luminous rays and
jets often radiate from the nucleus across the coma, and describe
graceful lateral curves, falling backwards and gradually fading away
into the tail, of which they then form a part. The rays and jets emitted
by the nucleus seem at first to obey the solar attraction and travel
towards the Sun; but they are soon repelled, and move backward towards
the tail. It is a mystery, as yet unexplained, how these cometary jets,
which at first seem to obey to the laws of attraction, are compelled to
retreat apparently by superior opposing forces. Among the forces of
nature, we know of no other than those of an electrical sort, which
would act in a similar manner; but this explanation would require us to
assume some direct electrical communication between the comet and the
Sun. Considering the distance between the two bodies, and the probable
absence or great tenuity of the gaseous material in interstellar space,
such an assumption is a difficult one.

Under the action of the solar forces, the coma also very frequently
forms itself into concentric luminous arcs, separated by comparatively
dark intervals. These luminous semi-circles vary in number, but
sometimes there are as many as four or five at a time. All great comets
show these concentric curves more or less, but sometimes only a portion
is visible, the rest of the coma having a different structure. When
great comets approach near the Sun, their coma is generally composed of
two distinct parts, an inner and an outer coma, the inner one being due
to the luminous jets issuing from the nucleus, which, never extending
very far, form a distinct, bright zone within the fainter exterior coma.

The tails of comets, which are in fact a prolongation of the coma, are
likewise extremely variable in form. They are sometimes straight like a
rod; again, are curved like a sabre, or even crooked like an S, as was
that of the comet of 1769. They are also fan-shaped, pointed, or of the
same width throughout. Many of these appendages appear longitudinally
divided through their middle by a narrow, darkish rift, extending from
the nucleus to the extremity. This peculiarity appears in the comet
shown on Plate XI. Sometimes the dark rift does not commence near the
nucleus, but at some distance from it, as I observed in the case of
comet 1881, III., on June 26th. This dark rift is not a permanent
feature of a comet's tail, but may be visible one day and not at all the
next. Comet 1881, III., which had shown a dark rift towards the end of
June, did not exhibit any such rift during July and August, when, on the
contrary, its tail appeared brighter in the middle. Coggia's comet,
which showed so prominent a dark rift in July, 1874, had none on June
10th. On the contrary, the tail was on that date very bright along its
middle, as also along each of its edges.

The tail of a comet does not invariably point directly away from the
Sun, as above mentioned, and sometimes the deviation is considerable;
for instance, the tail of the comet of 1577 deviated 21° from the point
opposite to the Sun.

In general, the tail inclines its extremity towards the regions of space
which it has just left, always presenting its convex border to the
regions towards which it is moving. It is also a remarkable fact that
this convex border, moving first in space, always appears brighter and
sharper than the opposite one, which is often diffused. From these
peculiarities it would seem that in moving about the Sun the comets
encounter some resistance to their motion, from the medium through which
they pass, and that this resistance is sufficient to curve their tails
away from the course in which they move, and to crowd their particles
together on the forward side. It is especially when they approach their
perihelion, and move more rapidly on a curve of a shorter radius, that
the comets' tails show the greatest curvature, unless their position in
regard to the observer prevents their being advantageously seen. The
tail of Donati's comet presented a fair illustration of this
peculiarity, its curvature having augmented with the velocity of the
comet's motion about the Sun. But possibly this phenomenon has another
cause, and may be found rather in the solar repulsion which acts on
comets and is not instantaneously propagated throughout their mass.

Although, in general, comets have but one tail, it is not very rare to
see them with multiple tails. The comets of 1807 and 1843 had each a
double tail; Donati's comet, in 1858, showed several narrow, long
rectilinear rays, issuing from its abruptly curved tail. The comet of
1825 had five branches, while that of 1744 exhibited no less than six
distinct tails diverging from the coma at various angles. In general
character the multiple and single tails are similar. When a comet has
two tails, it is not rare for the second to extend in the general
direction of the Sun, as was the case with the great comet of 1881,
III., represented on Plate XI. From July 14th to the 21st it exhibited
quite an extended conical tail, starting obliquely downwards from the
right side of the coma, and directed towards the Sun. From the 24th of
July to the 2d of August this secondary tail was exactly opposite in its
direction from that of the primary tail, and gave to the head a very
elongated appearance. Comet 1881, IV., also exhibited a secondary
appendage, not directed towards the Sun, but making an angle of about
45° with the main tail.

These cometary appendages sometimes attain prodigious dimensions. The
comets of 1680 and 1769 had tails so extended that, after their heads
had set under the horizon, the extremities of these immense appendages
were still seen as far up as the zenith. In a single day the tail of the
comet of 1843 extended 100°, and it was thrust from the comet "as a
dart of light" to the enormous distance of 48,500,000 miles, and yet of
this immense appendage nothing was left on the following day. The tail
of Donati's comet, in 1858, attained a real length of 42,000,000 miles,
while that of the great comet of 1843 had the enormous length of
200,000,000 miles. If this last comet had occupied the position of the
Sun, which it approached very nearly for a moment, the extremity of its
tail would have extended 60,000,000 miles beyond the orbit of Mars.

In some cases the tails of comets have been seen undulating and
vibrating in a manner similar to the undulations and coruscations of
light characteristic of some auroras. Many observers report having seen
such phenomena. The comet of 1769 was traversed by luminous waves and
pulsations, comparable to those seen in the aurora borealis. I myself
observed these curious undulations in Coggia's comet in 1874, while the
head of this object was below the horizon. For an hour the undulations
rapidly succeeded each other, and ran along the whole length of the
tail.

Some of the brightest comets have shone with such splendor that they
could be observed easily in full sunshine. Many comets, such as those of
1577 and 1744, have equaled Sirius and Venus in brilliancy. The great
comet of 1843, which suddenly appeared in our sky, was so brilliant that
it was seen by many observers at noon time, within a few degrees from
the Sun. I remember that I myself saw this remarkable object in the day
time, with a number of persons, who were gazing at the wonderful
apparition. So brilliant was this comet, that besides its nucleus and
head, a portion of its tail was also visible in the day time, provided
the observer screened his eyes from the full sunlight by standing in the
shadow of some building.

Of all the bodies revolving around the Sun, none have been known to
approach so near its surface as did the comet of 1843. When it arrived
at perihelion, the distance from the centre of its nucleus to the
surface of the Sun's photosphere was only 96,000 miles, while the
distance from surface to surface was less than 60,000 miles. This comet,
then, went through the solar atmosphere, and in traversing it with its
tremendous velocity of 366 miles per second, may very possibly have
swept through some solar protuberances, many of which attain much higher
elevations than that at which the comet passed. The comet of 1680 also
approached quite near the surface of the Sun, and near enough to
encounter some of the high solar protuberances, its distance at
perihelion being about two-thirds of the Moon's distance from the Earth.
The rapidity of motion of the comet of 1843 was such, when it approached
the Sun, that it swept through all that part of its orbit which is
situated north of the plane of the ecliptic in a little more than two
hours, moving in this short time from one node to the other, or 1800.

But if some comets have a very short perihelion distance, that of others
is considerable. Such a comet was that of 1729, whose perihelion
distance was 383,000,000 miles, the perihelion point being situated
between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.

While some comets come near enough to the Sun at perihelion to be
volatilized by its intense heat, others recede so far from it at
aphelion that they may be said to be frozen. The shortest cometary
aphelion distance known is that of Encke's comet, whose greatest
distance from the sun is 388,000,000 miles. But that of the comet of
1844 is 406,000,000,000 miles from the Sun. The comets of 1863 and 1864
are so remote in space when they reach their aphelion points that light,
with its velocity of 185,500 miles a second, would require 171 days in
the first case, and 230 in the last, to pass from them to the Earth.

The period of revolution of different comets also varies immensely.
While that of Encke's comet is only 3½ years, that of comet 1864, II.,
is 280,000 years.

Among the periodic comets of short period, some have exhibited highly
interesting phenomena. Encke's comet, discovered in 1818, is remarkable
for the fact that its period of revolution diminishes at each of its
successive returns, and consequently this comet, with each revolution,
approaches nearer and nearer to the Sun. The decrease of the period is
about 2½ hours at each return. Although the decrease is small, if it go
on in future as it does at present, the inevitable consequence will be
that this comet will finally fall into the Sun. This curious phenomenon
of retardation has been attributed by astronomers to the existence of a
resisting medium filling space, but so rare and ethereal that it does
not produce any sensible effect on the movements of the planets. But
some other causes may retard this comet, as similar retardations have
not been observed in the case of other periodic comets of short period.
These, however, are not so near to the Sun, and perhaps our luminary may
be surrounded by matter of extreme tenuity, which does not exist at a
greater distance from it.

Another of the periodic comets which has exhibited a very remarkable
phenomenon of transformation is Biela's comet, which divided into two
distinct parts, moving together in the same direction. When this comet
was first detected at its return in 1845, it presented nothing unusual,
but in the early part of 1846 it was noticed by several astronomers to
be divided into two parts of unequal brightness, forming thus a twin
comet. At its next return in 1852, the two sister comets were still
traveling in company, but their distance apart, which in 1846 was
157,000 miles, had increased to 1,500,000 miles. At the two next returns
in 1859 and 1865, their position not being very favorably situated for
observation, the comets were not seen. In 1872 the position should have
been favorable for observation, and they were consequently searched for,
but in vain; neither comet was found. An astronomer in the southern
hemisphere, however, found a comet on the track of Biela's, but
calculation has shown that the two objects are probably not identical,
since this comet was two months behind the computed position for
Biela's. It will be shown in the following chapter that our globe
probably crossed the orbit of Biela's comet on November 27th, 1872, and
the phenomena resulting from this passage will be there described.

It is seen from these observations that comets may be lost or dissipated
in space by causes entirely unknown to us. Biela's comet is not the only
one which has been thus disintegrated. Ancient historians speak of the
separation of large comets into two or more parts. In 1661 Hevelius
observed the apparent division of the comet of that year and its
reduction to fragments. The return of this comet, calculated for 1790,
was vainly waited for; the comet was not seen.

Other comets, whose periods of revolution were well known, have
disappeared, probably never to return. Such is Lexell's comet, whose
period was 5⁶⁄₁₀ years; also De Vico's comet, both of which are
now lost. It is supposed that Lexell's comet, which passed twice very
near the giant planet Jupiter, had its orbit changed from an ellipse to
a parabola, by the powerful disturbing influence of this planet, and was
thus lost from our system. Several other comets, in traveling over their
different orbits, have approached near enough to Saturn, Jupiter and the
Earth to have their orbits decidedly altered by the powerful attraction
of these bodies.

But since comets are liable to pass near the planets, and several have
orbits which approach that of the Earth, it becomes important for us to
know whether an encounter of such a body with our globe is possible, and
what would then be the result for us. Although that knowledge would not
enable us to modify the possibilities of an encounter, yet it is better
to know the dangers of our navigation through space than to ignore them.
This question of a collision of the Earth with a comet has been answered
in different ways, according to the ideas entertained in regard to the
mass of these bodies. While some have predicted calamities of all kinds,
such as deluges, conflagrations, or the reduction of the Earth to
incandescent gases, others have asserted that it would produce no more
effect than does a fly on encountering a railroad train. In our days
astronomers entertain very little fears from such an encounter, because
the probabilities of danger from an occurrence of this sort are very
slight, the mass of an ordinary comet being so small compared with that
of our globe. We know with certainty that the Earth has never had an
encounter with a comet _by which it has been transformed into gases_, at
least within the several millions of years during which animal and
vegetable life have left their marks upon the stony pages of its
history, otherwise these marks would not now be seen. If, then, such an
accident has not happened during this long period, the chances for its
occurring must be very small, so small indeed that they might almost be
left out of the question. It is true that our globe shows signs of great
perturbations of its surface, but we have not the slightest proofs that
they resulted from an encounter with a celestial body. It seems very
probable that our globe passed through the tail of the comet of 1861,
before it was first seen on June 29th; but nothing unusual was observed,
except perhaps some phosphorescent light in the atmosphere, which was
afterwards attributed to this cause.

The density and mass of comets must be comparatively very small. Their
tails consist of matter of such extreme tenuity that it affects but very
little the light of the small stars over which they pass. The coma and
nucleus, however, are not quite so transparent, and may have greater
masses. On several occasions I have seen the light of stars reduced by
the interposition of cometary matter, comet 1881, III., presenting
remarkable cases of this sort. On July 8th, at 10h. 50m., several small
stars were involved in this comet, one of which passed quite near the
nucleus through the bright inner coma. At that time the comet was
greatly disturbed, its nucleus was contracting and enlarging rapidly,
and becoming bright and again faint in an instant. Every time that the
nucleus grew larger, the star became invisible, but reappeared the
moment the nucleus was reduced in size. This phenomenon could not be
attributed to an atmospheric effect, since, while the nucleus was
enlarging, a very small inner nucleus was visible within the large
diffused one, the matter of which had apparently spread over the part of
the coma in which the star was involved, making it invisible.

That the mass of comets is small, is proved by the fact that they have
sometimes passed near the planets without disturbing them in any
sensible manner. Lexell's comet, which in 1770 remained four months very
near Jupiter, did not affect in the least the orbits, or the motions of
its satellites. The same comet also came within less than 1,500,000
miles from the Earth, and on this occasion it was calculated that its
mass could not have been the ¹⁄₅₀₀₀ part of that of our
globe, since otherwise the perturbations which it would have caused in
the elements of the Earth's orbit would have been sensible. There was,
however, no change. If this comet's mass had been equal to that of our
globe, the length of our year would have been increased by 2h. 47m. The
comet of 1837 remained four days within 3,500,000 miles of the Earth,
with no sensible effect.

It seems quite difficult to admit that the denser part of a comet
forming the nucleus is solid, as supposed by some physicists, since it
is so rapidly contracted and dilated by the solar forces, while the
comet is yet at a too great distance from the Sun to allow these effects
to be attributed to solar heat alone. This part of a comet, as indeed
the other parts, seems rather to be in the gaseous than in the solid
state; the changes observed in the intensity of its light and in its
structure may be conceived as due to some solar action partaking of the
nature of electricity.

It has been a question whether comets are self-luminous, or whether they
simply reflect the solar light. When their light is analyzed by the
spectroscope, it is found that the nucleus of a comet generally gives a
continuous spectrum, while the coma and tail give a spectrum consisting
of several bright diffused bands. The spectrum given by the nucleus is
rarely bright enough to allow the dark lines of the solar spectrum to be
discerned upon it; but such lines were reported in the spectrum of comet
1881, III., a fact proving that this nucleus at least reflected some
solar light. The nucleus of a comet may be partly self-luminous, and
either solid, liquid, or composed of incandescent gases submitted to a
great pressure. As to the coma and tail, they are evidently gaseous, and
partly, if not entirely, self-luminous, as is proved by the band
spectrum which they give. The position of these bands, moreover,
indicates that the luminous gases of which they are composed contain
carbon. The phenomena of polarization, however, seem to prove that these
parts of comets also reflect some solar light.

No theory so far proposed, to explain comets and the strange phenomena
they exhibit, seems to have been successful in its attempts, and the
mystery in which these bodies have been involved from the beginning of
their apparition, seems to be now nearly as great as ever. It has been
supposed that their tails have no real existence, but are due to an
optical illusion. Prof. Tyndall has endeavored to explain cometary
phenomena by supposing these bodies to be composed of vapors subject to
decomposition by the solar radiations, and thus made visible, the head
and tail being an actinic cloud due to such decompositions. According to
this view, the tails of comets would not consist of matter projected
into spacer but simply of matter precipitated by the solar rays in
traversing the cometary nebulosity. The endeavor has also been made to
explain the various phenomena presented by comets by an electrical
action of the Sun on the gases composing these objects. Theories taking
this as a base seem to us to be more likely to lead to valuable results.
M. Faye, who has devoted much time and learning to this subject, assumes
a real repulsive force of the Sun, acting inversely to the square of the
distance and proportionally to the surface, and not to the mass as
attraction does. He supposes, however, that this repulsive force is
generated by the solar heat, and not by electricity. Prof. Wm. Harkness
says that many circumstances seem to indicate that the comets' tails are
due, in a great measure, to electrical phenomena.

The fact that the tails of comets are better defined and brighter on the
forward side, associated with the other fact that they curve the most
when their motion is most rapid, sufficiently indicates that these
appendages are material, and that they either encounter some resistance
from the medium in which they move, or from a solar repulsion. The
phenomena of condensation and extension, which I have observed in the
comets of 1874 and 1881, added to the curious behavior exhibited by the
jets issuing from the nucleus, seem to indicate the action of electrical
forces rather than of heat. The main difficulty encountered in the
framing of a theory of comets consists in explaining how so delicate and
extended objects as their tails seem to be, can be transported and
whirled around the Sun at their perihelion with such an enormous
velocity, always keeping opposite to the Sun, and, as expressed by Sir
John Herschel, "in defiance of the law of gravitation, nay, even of the
received laws of motion."

To consider the direction of the comets' tails as an indirect effect of
attraction, seems out of the question; the phenomenon of repulsion so
plainly exhibited by these objects seems to point to a positive solar
repulsion, as alone competent to produce these great changes. The
repulsive action of the Sun on comets' tails might be conceived, for
instance, as acting in a manner similar to that of a powerful current of
wind starting from the Sun, and constantly changing in direction, but
always keeping on a line with the comet. Such a current, acting on a
comet's tail as if it were a pennant, would drive it behind the nucleus
just as observed. If it could once be ascertained that the great
disturbances on comets correspond with the magnetic disturbances on our
globe and with the display of the auroral light, the electric nature of
the forces acting so strangely on the comets would be substantially
demonstrated. I have shown that some of the great disturbances observed
in the comets of 1874 and 1881 have coincided with auroral displays, and
it will be shown hereafter that similar displays have also coincided
with the passage of meteoric showers through our atmosphere. Whether
these simultaneous phenomena were simple coincidences having no
connection, or whether they are the result of a common cause, can only
be ascertained by long continued future observations.




SHOOTING-STARS AND METEORS

PLATE XII


While contemplating the heavens on a clear moonless night, we
occasionally witness the sudden blazing forth of a star-like meteor,
which glides swiftly and silently across some of the constellations, and
as suddenly disappears, leaving sometimes along its track a
phosphorescent trail, which remains visible for a while and gradually
vanishes. These strange apparitions of the night are called _Falling_ or
_Shooting-stars_.

There is certainly no clear night throughout the year during which some
of these meteors do not make their appearance, but their number is quite
variable. In ordinary nights only four or five will be observed by a
single person in the course of an hour; but on others they are so
numerous that it becomes impossible to count them. When the falling
stars are only a few in number, and appear scattered in the sky, they
are called _Sporadic Meteors_, and when they appear in great numbers
they constitute _Meteoric Showers_ or _Swarms_.

Probably there is no celestial phenomenon more impressive than are these
wonderful pyrotechnic displays, during which the heavens seem to break
open and give passage to fiery showers, whose luminous drops describe
fantastic hieroglyphics in the sky. While observing them, one can fully
realize the terror with which they have sometimes filled beholders, to
whom it seemed that the stability of the universe had come to an end,
and that all the stars of the firmament were pouring down upon the Earth
in deluges of fire.

The ancients have left record of many great meteoric displays, and the
manner in which they describe them sufficiently indicates the fear
caused by these mysterious objects. Among the many meteoric showers
recorded by ancient historians may be mentioned one observed in
Constantinople, in the month of November, 472, when all the sky appeared
as if on fire with meteors. In the year 599, meteors were seen on a
certain night flying in all directions like fiery grasshoppers, and
giving much alarm to the people. In March, 763, "the stars fell
suddenly, and in such crowded number that people were much frightened,
and believed the end of the world had come." On April 10th, 1095, the
stars fell in such enormous quantity from midnight till morning that
they were as crowded as are the hail stones during a severe storm.

In modern times the fall of the shooting-stars in great number has been
frequently recorded. One of the most remarkable meteoric showers of the
eighteenth century occurred on the night of November 13th, 1799, and was
observed throughout North and South America and Europe. On this
memorable night thousands of falling stars were seen traversing the sky
between midnight and morning. Humboldt and Boupland, then traveling in
South America, observed the phenomena at Cumana, between two and five
o'clock in the morning. They saw an innumerable number of shooting-stars
going from north to south, appearing like brilliant fire-works. Several
of these meteors left long phosphorescent trails in the sky, and had
nuclei whose apparent diameter, in some cases, surpassed that of the
Moon.

The shower of November 13th, 1833, was still more remarkable for the
great number of meteors which traversed the heavens, and was visible
over the whole of North and South America. On that occasion the falling
stars were far too numerous to be counted, and they fell so thickly that
Prof. Olmsted, of New Haven, who observed them carefully, compared their
number at the moment of their maximum fall to half that of the flakes of
snow falling during a heavy storm. This observer estimated at 240,000
the number of meteors which must have traversed the heavens above the
horizon during the seven hours while the display was visible.



[PLATE XII.--THE NOVEMBER METEORS.

As observed between midnight and 5 o'clock A.M. on the night of November
13-14 1868.]


In the years 1866, 1867 and 1868, there were also extraordinary meteoric
displays on the night of November 13th. It was on the last mentioned
date that I had the opportunity to observe the remarkable shower of
shooting-stars of which I have attempted to represent all the
characteristic points in Plate XII. My observations were begun a little
after midnight, and continued without interruption till sunrise. Over
three thousand meteors were observed during this interval of time in the
part of the sky visible from a northern window of my house. The maximum
fall occurred between four and five o'clock, when they appeared at a
mean rate of 15 in a minute.

In general, the falling stars were quite large, many being superior to
Jupiter in brightness and apparent size, while a few even surpassed
Venus, and were so brilliant that opaque objects cast a strong shadow
during their flight. A great many left behind them a luminous train,
which remained visible for more or less time after the nucleus had
vanished. In general, these meteors appeared to move either in straight
or slightly curved orbits; but quite a number among them exhibited very
extraordinary motions, and followed very complicated paths, some of
which were quite incomprehensible.

While some moved either in wavy or zig-zag lines, strongly accentuated,
others, after moving for a time in a straight line, gradually changed
their course, curving upward or downward, thus moving in a new
direction. Several among them, which were apparently moving in a
straight line with great rapidity, suddenly altered their course,
starting at an abrupt angle in another direction, with no apparent
slackening in their motion. One of them, which was a very conspicuous
object, was moving slowly in a straight course, when of a sudden it made
a sharp turn and continued to travel in a straight line, at an acute
angle with the first, retreating, and almost going back towards the
regions from which it originally came. As nearly all the meteors which
exhibited these extraordinary motions left the trace of their passage in
the sky by a luminous trail, it was easily ascertained that these
appearances were not deceptive. On one occasion I noticed that the
change of direction in the orbit corresponded with the brightening up of
the meteor thus disturbed in its progress.

Among these meteors, some traveled very slowly, and a few seemed to
advance as if by jerks, but in general they moved very rapidly. One of
the meteors thus appearing to move by jerks left a luminous trail, upon
which the various jerks seemed to be left impressed by a succession of
bright and faint spaces along the train. Some of the largest meteors
appeared to rotate upon an axis as they advanced, and most of these
revolving meteors, as also a great number of the others, seemed to
explode just before they disappeared, sending bright fiery sparks of
different colors in all directions, although no sound was at any time
heard. The largest and most brilliant meteor observed on that night
appeared at 5h. 30m., a little before sunrise. It was very bright, and
appeared considerably larger than Venus, having quite a distinct disk.
This meteor moved very slowly, leaving behind a large phosphorescent
trail, which seemed to issue from the inside of the nucleus as it
advanced. For a moment the train increased in size and brightness close
to the nucleus, which then appeared as an empty transparent sphere,
sprinkled all over with minute fiery sparks; the nucleus then suddenly
burst out into luminous particles, which immediately vanished, only the
luminous trail of considerable dimensions being left.

Many of the trails thus left by the meteors retained their luminosity
for several minutes, and sometimes for over a quarter of an hour. These
trails slowly changed their form and position; but it is perhaps
remarkable that almost all those which I observed on that night assumed
the same general form--that of an open, irregular ring, or horse-shoe,
somewhat resembling the letter C. This ring form was subsequently
transformed into an irregular, roundish cumulus-like cloud. The trail
left by a very large meteor, which I observed on the evening of
September 5th, 1880, also exhibited the same general character of
transformation.

While I was observing a long brilliant trail left by a meteor on the
night of November 13th, 1868, it was suddenly crossed by another bright
shooting-star. The latter apparently went through the luminous substance
forming the trail, which was suddenly altered in form, and considerably
diminished in brightness simultaneously with this passage, although
electrical action at some distance might perhaps as well explain the
sudden change observed.

In the majority of cases the meteors appeared white; but many,
especially the largest, exhibited a variety of brilliant colors, among
which the red, blue, green, yellow and purple were the most common. In
general the trails exhibited about the same color as the nucleus, but
much fainter, and they were usually pervaded by a greenish tint. In some
instances the trails were of quite a different color from the nucleus.

The luminous cloud observed at 5h. 30m. on the morning of November 14th,
1868, after having passed through the series of transformations above
described, remained visible for a long while after sunrise, appearing
then as a small cirrus cloud, exactly similar in appearance to the
hundreds of small cirrus clouds then visible in the sky, which had
probably the same meteoric origin. For over three hours after sunrise,
these cirrus clouds remained visible in the sky, moving all together
with the wind in the high regions of the atmosphere.

Although Plate XII. is intended to represent all the characteristics
exhibited by the meteors observed on that night, every form represented
having been obtained by direct observation, yet the number is much
greater than it was at any single moment during the particular shower of
1868. As regards number, the intention was to give an idea of a great
meteoric shower, such as that of 1833, for instance. Although many of
the falling stars seem to be close to the Earth's surface, yet this is
only an effect of perspective due to their great distance, very few of
these meteors ever coming into the lower regions of our atmosphere at
all.

The phenomena exhibited during other great meteoric showers have been
similar to those presented by the shower just described, the only
differences consisting in variations of size and brightness in the
meteors, and also in the trails, which sometimes are not so numerous as
they were in 1868.

While some shooting-stars move so rapidly that they can hardly be
followed in their orbits, others move so slowly that the sight can
easily follow them, and even remark the peculiarities of their
movements, some remaining visible for half a minute. Some of the falling
stars move at the rapid rate of 100 miles a second, but others only 10
miles a second, and even less. In general, they move about half as fast
again as the Earth in its orbit. The arcs described by the meteors in
the sky are variable. While some extend 80° and even 100°, others are
hardly half a degree in length. While some shooting-stars are so faint
that they can hardly be seen through the largest telescopes, others are
so large and brilliant that they can be seen in the day-time. In
general, a shooting-star of average brightness resembles a star of the
third or fourth magnitude.

Whatever may be the origin of the shooting-stars, they are, when we see
them, not in the celestial spaces, like the planets, the comets, or the
stars, but in our atmosphere, through which they travel as long as they
remain visible. The height at which they appear and disappear is
variable, but in general they are about 80 miles above the surface of
our globe when they are first seen, and at about 55 miles when they
disappear. In many cases, however, they have been observed at greater
elevations, as also at smaller. A meteor simultaneously observed at two
different stations first appeared at the height of 285 miles, and was
last seen at 192 miles above the Earth's surface; but in rare cases the
falling stars have been seen below a layer of clouds completely covering
the sky. I myself saw one such shooting-star a few years since. The fact
that the meteors are visible at so great elevations, proves that our
atmosphere extends much farther than was formerly supposed, although at
these great heights it must be extremely rarefied, and very different
from what it is in its lower regions.

There is a remarkable difference between the sporadic meteors seen in
the sky on every night, and the meteoric showers observed only at
comparatively rare intervals. While the first appear from different
points in the sky and travel in all directions, being perfectly
independent, the meteors of a shower all come from the same point of the
heavens, from which they apparently diverge in all directions. This
point of divergence of the meteors is called the _radiant point_ of the
shower. Although the meteors seem to diverge in all directions from the
radiant point, yet they all move in approximately parallel lines, the
divergence being an effect of perspective.

Whatever may be the position of the radiant point in the constellations,
it remains as fixed in the sky as the stars themselves, and participates
with them in the apparent motion which they undergo by the effect of the
diurnal motion, and thus rises and sets with the constellation to which
it belongs. This fact is sufficient to prove that the orbits of these
meteors are independent of the Earth's motion, and that consequently
they do not originate in our atmosphere. It has been shown by Encke that
the radiant point of the meteoric shower of November 13th is precisely
the point towards which our globe moves in space on November 13th; a
tangent to the Earth's orbit would pass through this radiant point.

The meteoric showers are particularly remarkable, not merely because of
the large number of meteors which are visible and the fact that they all
follow a common orbit, but chiefly because they have a periodic return,
either after an interval of a year, or after a lapse of several years.
At the beginning of the present century only two meteoric showers were
known, those of August 10th and of November 13th, and their periodicity
had not yet been recognized, although it had begun to be suspected. It
was only in 1836 that Quetelet and Olbers ventured to predict the
reappearance of the November meteors in the year 1867. Having made
further investigations, Prof. Newton, of Yale College, announced their
return in the year 1866. In both of these years, as also in 1868, the
meteors were very numerous, and were observed in Europe and in America
on the night of November 13th. The predictions having thus been
fulfilled, the periodicity of the meteors was established. Since then,
other periodic showers have been recognized, although they are much less
important in regard to number than those of August and November, except
that of November 27th, which exhibited so brilliant a display in Europe
in 1872. These successive appearances have established the main fact
that meteoric showers are more or less visible every year when the Earth
occupies certain positions in its orbit.

The meteoric shower of the 10th of August has its radiant point situated
in the vicinity of the variable star Algol, in the constellation
Perseus, from which its meteors have received the name of Perseids.
Although varying in splendor, this meteoric swarm never fails to make
its appearance every year. The Perseids move through our atmosphere at
the rate of 37 miles per second. The shower usually lasts about six
hours.

The meteoric shower of November 13th has its radiant point situated in
the vicinity of the star Gamma, in the constellation Leo, from which its
meteors have been called Leonids. But while the August meteors recur
regularly every year, with slight variations, the shower of November
does not occur with the same regularity. During several years it is
hardly noticeable, and is even totally absent, while in other years it
is very remarkable. Every 33 years an extraordinary meteoric shower
occurs on the 13th of November, and the phenomenon is repeated on the
two succeeding years at the same date, but with a diminution in its
splendor at each successive return. The Leonids move in an opposite
direction to that of the Earth, and travel in our atmosphere with an
apparent velocity of 45 miles per second, this being about the maximum
velocity observed in falling stars. But when the motion of our globe is
taken into account, and a deduction is made of the 18 miles which it
travels per second, it is found that these meteors move at an actual
mean rate of 27 miles a second.

In a meteoric shower the stars do not fall uniformly throughout the
night, there being a time when they appear in greater numbers. Usually
it is towards morning, between 4 and 6 o'clock, that the maximum occurs.
The probable cause of this phenomenon will be explained in its place
hereafter.

The orbits of the meteoric showers are not all approximately in the same
plane, like those of the planets, but rather resemble those of comets,
and have all possible inclinations to the ecliptic. Like the comets,
too, the different meteoric showers have either direct or retrograde
motion.

The shooting-stars were formerly considered as atmospheric meteors,
caused by the combustion of inflammable gases generated at the surface
of the Earth, and transported to the high regions of our atmosphere by
their low specific gravity. But the considerable height at which they
usually appear, the great velocity of their motion, the common orbit
followed by the meteors of the same shower, and the periodicity of their
recurrence, do not permit us now to entertain these ideas, or to doubt
their cosmical origin. But what is their nature?

It is now generally admitted that innumerable minute bodies, moving in
various directions around the Sun, are scattered in the interplanetary
spaces through which our globe travels. It has been supposed that
congregations of such minute bodies form elliptical rings, within which
they are all moving in close parallel orbits around the Sun. On the
supposition that such rings intersect the orbit of the Earth at the
proper places, it was practicable to account for the shooting-stars by
the passage through our atmosphere of the numerous minute cosmical
bodies composing the rings, and the Leonid and Perseid showers were so
explained. But when the elements of the orbits of these two last swarms
came to be better known, and were compared with those of other celestial
bodies, it was found necessary to alter this theory.

It had for a long while been suspected that some kind of relation
existed between the shooting-stars and the comets. This idea, vaguely
formulated by Kepler more than two centuries ago, more clearly expressed
by Chladni, and still more by Mr. Grey, before the British Association,
at Liverpool, in 1855, has recently received a brilliant confirmation by
the researches of Professor Schiaparelli, Director of the Observatory of
Milan. A thorough investigation of the orbits of the August and November
meteors led Schiaparelli to the discovery of a remarkable relation
between meteoric and cometary orbits. By comparing the elements of these
meteoric orbits with those of comets, he found a very close resemblance
between the orbit of the August meteors and that of the comet 1862,
III., and again between the orbit of the November meteors and that of
Tempel's comet, 1866, I. These resemblances were too striking to be the
result of mere chance, and demonstrated the identity of these cometary
orbits with those of the Perseid and Leonid showers. In accordance with
these new facts, it is now admitted that the meteoric showers result
from the passage of our globe through swarms of meteoric particles
following the orbits of comets, which intersect the orbit of the Earth.

Professor Schiaparelli has attempted to show how these meteoric swarms
were originally scattered along the orbits of comets, by supposing these
bodies to originate from nebulous masses, which, in entering the sphere
of attraction of the Sun, are gradually scattered along their orbits,
and finally form comets followed by long trails of meteoric particles.

It has been shown that in approaching the Sun the comets become
considerably elongated, their particles being disseminated over immense
distances by the solar repulsion. It seems probable that, owing to its
feeble attractive power, the nucleus is incompetent to recall the
scattered cometary particles and retain them in its grasp when they are
relieved from the solar repulsion, so that they remain free from the
nucleus, although they continue to move along its orbit. It is
supposable that these cometary particles will scatter more and more in
course of time. Forming at first an elongated meteoric cloud, they will
finally spread along the whole orbit, and thus form a ring of meteoric
particles. Since our globe constantly moves in its orbit and daily
occupies a different position, it follows that at any point where such a
cometary orbit happens to cross that of the Earth, our globe will
necessarily encounter the cometary particles as a shower of meteors.
This encounter will take place at a certain time of the year, either
yearly, if they form a continuous ring, or after a succession of years,
if they simply form an elongated cloud. Such meteoric clouds or rings
would not be visible in ordinary circumstances, even through the largest
telescopes, except on penetrating the upper regions of our atmosphere,
when they would appear as showers of falling stars. It is supposed that
in penetrating our atmosphere, even in its most rarefied regions, these
meteors are heated by the resistance offered by the air to their motion,
first becoming luminous and then being finally vaporized and burnt
before they can reach the surface of the Earth.

The orbit of the comet of 1862, III., which so closely corresponds with
that of the Perseid meteors, is much more extended than that of Tempel's
comet corresponding with that of the Leonids. While the first extends
far beyond the orbit of Neptune, the latter only goes a little beyond
that of Uranus. The former orbit makes a considerable angle with the
plane of the Earth's orbit, but the latter is much nearer to parallelism
with it. The period of revolution of the first is 108 years, and that of
the last about 33¼ years.

From the fact that the Perseid shower occurs yearly on the 10th of
August, when the Earth crosses the orbit of the comet of 1862, III., it
is supposed that the cometary particles producing this shower are
disseminated along the whole orbit, and form a ring encircling the Sun
and Earth. To explain the yearly variations in the number of the
shooting-stars observed, these particles are supposed to be unequally
distributed over the orbit, being more crowded at one place than they
are at another. In order to explain the meteoric shower of Leonids,
which appears in all its splendor every 33 years, and then with
diminished intensity for two successive years, after which it is without
importance, it is supposed that the cometary particles of the comet of
1866, I., have not as yet spread all along the orbit, a sufficient time
not having been allowed, but form an elongated meteoric cloud, more
dense in its front than in its rear part. From these considerations it
has been supposed also that the comet of 1866, I., is of a more recent
date than that of 1862, III. While Tempel's comet makes its revolution
around the Sun in about 33 years, this meteoric cloud, which has the
same period and returns to the same point of its orbit every 33 years,
encounters our globe for three successive years. The first year we are
passing through its densest parts, and the two following years in less
and less crowded parts, from which result the observed phenomena. An
idea of the extent of this meteoric cloud may be formed from the fact
that, with its cometary velocity of motion, it takes this cloud three
years at least to cross the Earth's orbit. From recent researches it
would appear that the Leonid cloud is not single, but that at least two
others of smaller importance exist, and have periods of 33¼ years.

Biela's comet, which was divided into two parts in 1846, is another of
the few comets whose orbit approaches that of the Earth. Possessing this
knowledge, and knowing then the close connection existing between
meteors and comets, astronomers supposed that there were sufficient
reasons to expect a meteoric shower when this comet was passing near the
Earth. They consequently expected a meteoric display in 1872, when our
globe was to cross its orbit. Their anticipation was plainly fulfilled,
and on the night of November 27th, 1872, a splendid meteoric display,
having its radiant point in the constellation Andromeda, was observed in
Europe, and also in America, but the meteors seen here were not so
numerous as in Europe. Other meteoric showers of less importance, such
as that of April 20th, for instance, have also been identified with
cometary orbits, so that now no doubt seems to remain as to the identity
of cometary particles and shooting-stars.

The fact that the maximum number of meteors is always observed in the
morning hours, supports the hypothesis of the cosmic origin of the
shooting-stars, since the regions of the Earth where it is morning are
precisely those fronting the regions towards which our globe is moving
in space, and accordingly encounter more directly the meteors moving in
their orbit. The greater abundance of falling stars at that time may
thus be accounted for.

The number of meteors penetrating our atmosphere must be very great;
there is not an hour and probably not a minute during which none fall.
From various considerations, some astronomers have estimated at from
65,000,000,000 to 146,000,000,000 the total number of shooting-stars
yearly penetrating in our atmosphere. The actual number is undoubtedly
great, yet the fact that the meteors are rarely seen through the
telescope while employed in observing various celestial objects, does
not indicate that they are so numerous as these figures imply. It is
only occasionally that one is seen traversing the field of the
instrument. Even when the sky is observed with a low power eye-piece for
several hours in succession, many nights may pass without disclosing
one, although an observer, sweeping the sky more freely with the naked
eye, may often perceive four or five during an ordinary night.

About the true nature of these bodies nothing is known with certainty.
From spectrum analysis it seems to be established that most of them
contain sodium and magnesium, while a few indicate the presence of
strontium and iron, and in some rare cases there are traces of coal-gas.
Some of the nuclei give a continuous spectrum, and others a spectrum of
lines. The trail always gives a spectrum of bright lines which indicates
its gaseous state. The traces of coal-gas rarely seen in meteors are,
however, of great importance, as it identifies them more closely with
the comets, which generally show a similar spectrum. The continuous
spectra exhibited by some nuclei would indicate that they are
incandescent and either solid or liquid; but it is difficult to conclude
from their spectra what is their true nature, since we do not know
exactly what part the terrestrial atmosphere may play in producing the
results.

The mass of the shooting-stars is not known with certainty, but the fact
that during great meteoric showers, none are seen to reach the surface
of the Earth, all being consumed in a few seconds, sufficiently
indicates that it must be very small. It has been calculated that those
equal to Venus in apparent size and brilliancy may weigh several pounds,
while the faint ones would weigh only a few grains.

If the shooting-stars have even such a mass as that here attributed to
some of them, the extraordinary motions which I have described above
seem to be unaccountable. The change of direction of a heavy mass moving
swiftly cannot be sudden. The semi-circular, the wavy and the angular
orbits observed could not be described, it would seem, by such a mass
animated with a great velocity. Although the meteors are said to be
ignited by the transformation of part of their progressive motion into
molecular motion, yet it is not observed that the velocity of the
falling stars diminishes when they are about to disappear. The luminous
trails they leave in the atmosphere do not appear to be endowed with any
motion, but remain for a time in their original positions. These facts
are apparently opposed to the hypothesis that such meteors have any
appreciable mass. The extraordinary motions exhibited by some meteors
seem to indicate that some unsuspected force resides in these bodies,
and causes them to deviate from the laws of ordinary motion.

Although it is very probable that the ordinary shooting-stars have no
appreciable mass, yet it is known that very heavy meteoric masses
sometimes fall at the surface of the Earth. Such falls are generally
preceded by the sudden apparition in the sky of a large, and usually
very brilliant fire-ball, which traverses the air at a great speed,
sometimes leaving behind it a luminous trail, after which it explodes
with a loud sound, and heavy fiery meteoric fragments, diverging in all
directions, fall at the surface of the Earth. The name of _Aerolites_ or
_Meteorolites_ is given to these ponderous fragments. As these meteors,
before they explode and fall to the ground, have many points of
resemblance with the shooting-stars, they are generally supposed to be
connected with them, and to have a similar cometary origin. The fact
that the aerolites differ widely from each other in constitution, and
are all composed of substances found on the Earth, associated with other
facts given below, would rather seem to indicate a terrestrial than a
celestial origin.

If the aerolites belong to the same class of bodies as the falling
stars, differing from them only in size and mass, it is difficult to see
why so very few should fall upon the Earth during the great meteoric
showers, when thousands of shooting-stars traverse our atmosphere. In
Prof. Kirkwood's "Meteoric Astronomy" are given catalogues of all the
falls of aerolites and fire-balls which have been observed at the time
of the periodic meteoric showers of the 10th of August and the 13th of
November, during a period of 221 years for the Perseids, or August
showers, and of 318 years for the Leonids, or November showers. During
221 years, 10 falls of aerolites have been witnessed simultaneously with
the fall of the Perseids; while during 318 years, only 4 such falls have
been recorded as having occurred at the time of the Leonid shower. If
there is any close connection between the shooting-stars and the
aerolites, we should expect to find a maximum in their fall at the time
of the great meteoric displays. So far, no maxima or minima have yet
been discovered in the fall of aerolites; they do not seem, like
meteoric showers, to be governed by a law of periodicity.

A very remarkable peculiarity of the aerolites is that they seem to have
a tendency to fall in certain regions. Such are the southern part of
France, the north of Italy, Hindostan, the central states of North
America, and Mexico and Brazil. There is a curious contrast existing
between the quick cometary motion of the aerolites before their
explosion, and the comparatively slow motion of their fragments as they
reach the Earth; motion which seems to be no greater than that
corresponding to their natural fall impeded by the resistance of the
air. In general, their penetration into the soil upon which they fall
does not at all correspond to the great velocity with which they move in
the atmosphere. The fragmentary structures of the aerolites, their
identity of substance with that of our globe, their great resemblance to
the volcanic minerals of the Earth, and the fractures and faults which
some of them exhibit, do not correspond at all with the idea that they
are cometary particles fallen on the Earth. As far as their structure
and appearance is concerned, they seem rather to be a volcanic product
of the interior of the Earth than parts of disintegrated comets. It must
be admitted that their identity with the shooting-stars is far from
established, and that they are still involved in mystery.

The so-called meteoric dust gathered at sea and on high mountains may
have various origins, and may be partly furnished by volcanic dust
carried to great distances in the atmosphere.

Since millions of shooting-stars penetrate our atmosphere every year and
remain in it, becoming definitively a part of the Earth, it follows
that, no matter how small may be the quantity of matter of which they
are composed, they must gradually increase the volume and mass of our
globe, although the increase may be exceedingly slow. Supposing every
one of the shooting-stars penetrating our atmosphere to contain one
cubic millimeter of matter, it has been calculated that it would take
nearly 35,000 years to make a deposit one centimeter in thickness all
over the surface of our globe. Insignificant as this may appear, it is
probable that the quantity of matter of meteoric origin which is added
to our globe is much less than has just been supposed.




THE MILKY-WAY OR GALAXY

PLATE XIII


During clear nights, when the Moon is below the horizon, the starry
vault is greatly adorned by an immense belt of soft white light,
spanning the heavens from one point of the horizon to the opposite
point, and girdling the celestial sphere in its delicate folds. Every
one is familiar with this remarkable celestial object, called the
_Milky-way_ or _Galaxy_.

Seen with the naked eye, the Galaxy appears as an irregular, narrow,
nebulous belt, apparently composed of cloud-like luminous masses of
different forms and sizes, separated by comparatively dark intervals.
These cloud-like masses vary much in luminous intensity, and while some
among them are very bright and conspicuous, others are so faint that
they are hard to recognize. In general, the brightest parts of the
Milky-way are situated along the middle of its belt, while its borders,
which are usually very faint, gradually vanish in the sky. Some parts of
the Galaxy, however, show very little of the cloudy structure so
characteristic of other parts, being almost uniform throughout, except
towards the borders, which are always fainter. These parts showing
greater uniformity are also the faintest.

Such is the general appearance of the Milky-way on ordinary nights, but
on rare occasions, when the atmosphere is particularly pure, it presents
one of the grandest sights that can be imagined. At such favorable
moments I have seen the Galaxy gleaming with light, and appearing as if
composed of star-dust or of precious stones. The strange belt then
appeared all mottled over and fleecy, its large cloud-like masses being
subdivided into numerous small, irregular cloudlets of great brilliancy,
which appeared projected upon a soft luminous background.

The width of the Galaxy is far from being uniform; while in some places
it is only 4° or 5°, in others it is 15° and even more. In some
places it appears wavy in outline, at others quite straight; then it
contracts, to expand a few degrees distant; while at other places it
sends off branches and loops, varying in form, size and direction, some
of which are quite prominent, while others are very faint.

Although very irregular in form, the general appearance of the galactic
belt is that of a regular curve occupying one of the great circles of
the celestial sphere. The Milky-way completely encircles the heavens,
but, of course, only one-half is visible at any one moment, since our
globe prevents the other half from being seen. If, for a moment, we
imagine ourselves left in space, our globe having vanished from under
our feet, we should then see the whole Galaxy forming a continuous belt
in the heavens, at the centre of which we should apparently be situated.

While only one-half of the galactic belt can be seen at once from any
point on the Earth, yet, according to the position of the observer, a
larger or smaller portion of the whole can be seen at different times.
In high northern or southern latitudes but little more than half can be
seen even by continuous observations; but as we approach the equatorial
regions, more and more of it becomes visible, until the whole may be
seen at different hours and seasons. In the latitudes of the northern
states, about two-thirds of the Galaxy is visible, the rest remaining
hidden below the horizon; but from the southern states very nearly the
whole can be seen. The half of the Milky-way visible at any one time
from any latitude on the Earth never entirely sets below the horizon,
although in some places it may be so near the horizon as to be rendered
invisible by vapors. In the latitude of Cambridge, when in its lowest
position, the summit of its arc is still about 12° or 15° above the
northern horizon. The great circle of the celestial sphere, occupied by
the galactic belt, is inclined at an angle of about 63° to the
celestial equator, and intersects this great circle on one side in the
constellation Monoceros in 6h. 47m., and on the opposite side in the
constellations Aquila and Ophiuchus in 18h. 47m. of right ascension; so
that its northern pole is situated in the constellation Coma Berenices
in R. A. 12h. 47m., declination N. 27°, and the southern in the
constellation Cetus in R. A. 0h. 47m., declination S. 27°.

According to the seasons and to the hours of the night at which it is
observed, the galactic arch presents different inclinations in the sky.
Owing to its inclination to the equator of the celestial sphere, its
opposite parts exhibit opposite inclinations when they pass the meridian
of a place. That part of the Galaxy which is represented on Plate XIII.,
and which intersects the celestial equator in the constellation Aquila,
is inclined to the left or towards the east, when it is on the meridian;
while the opposite part, situated in Monoceros, is inclined to the
right, or towards the west, when it reaches the meridian. The former
passes the meridian in the evening in the summer and autumn months; the
latter, in the winter and spring months.


[PLATE XIII.--PART OF THE MILKY WAY.

From a study made during the years 1874, 1875 and 1876]


By beginning at its northernmost part, represented at the upper part of
Plate XIII., situated in "the chair" of the constellation Cassiopeia,
and descending southwardly, and continuing in the same direction until
the whole circle is completed, the course of the Milky-way through the
constellations may be briefly described as follows: From Cassiopeia's
chair, the Galaxy, forming two streams, descends south, passing partly
through Lacerta on the left, and Cepheus on the right; at this last
point it approaches nearest to the polar star. Then it enters Cygnus,
where it becomes very complicated and bright, and where several large
cloudy masses are seen terminating its left branch, which passes to the
right, near the bright star Deneb, the leader of this constellation.
Below Deneb, the Galaxy is apparently disconnected and separated from
the northern part by a narrow, irregular dark gap. From this rupture,
the Milky-way divides into two great streams separated by an irregular
dark rift. An immense branch extends to the right, which, after having
formed an important luminous mass between the stars _γ_ and _β_,
continues its southward progress through parts of Lyra, Vulpecula,
Hercules, Aquila and Ophiuchus, where it gradually terminates a few
degrees south of the equator. The main stream on the left, after having
formed a bright mass around _ε_ Cygni, passes through Vulpecula and
then Aquila, where it crosses the equinoctial just below the star _η_
after having involved in its nebulosity the bright star Altair, the
leader of Aquila. In the southern hemisphere the Galaxy becomes very
complicated and forms a succession of very bright, irregular masses, the
upper one being in Scutum Sobieskii, while the others are respectively
situated in Sagittarius and in Scorpio; the last, just a little above
our horizon, being always considerably dimmed by vapors. From Scutum
Sobieskii, the Galaxy expands considerably on the right, and sends a
branch into Scorpio, in which the fiery red star Antares is somewhat
involved.

Continuing its course below our horizon, the Milky-way enters Ara and
Norma, and then, passing partly through Circinus, Centaurus and Musca,
it reaches the Southern Cross, after having been divided by the large
dark pear-shaped spot known to navigators as the "Coal-Sack." In Ara and
Crux the Milky-way attains its maximum of brightness, which there
surpasses its brightest parts in Cygnus. In Musca, it makes its nearest
approach to the south pole of the heavens. It then enters Carina and
Vela, where it spreads out like a fan, and terminates in this last
constellation, before reaching _λ_, being once more interrupted by a
dark and very irregular gap, on a line with the two stars _γ_ and _λ_.
It is noteworthy that this second rupture of continuity of the Galaxy in
Vela is very nearly opposite, or at about 180° from the break near
Deneb in Cygnus.

Continuing its course on the other side of the break, the Milky-way
again spreads out into the shape of a fan, grows narrower in entering
Puppis, where it is longitudinally divided by darkish channels. It then
passes above our southern horizon, becoming visible to us, passing
through part of Canis Major, where its border just grazes the brilliant
star Sirius. But from Puppis it gradually diminishes in brightness and
complication, becoming faint and uniform. It enters Monoceros and Orion,
where it again crosses the equator a little above _δ_, the northernmost
of the three bright stars in the belt of Orion. Continuing its northward
course it passes through Gemini, extending as far as Castor and Pollux,
and then entering Auriga, where it begins to increase in brightness and
in complication of structure. It passes partly through Camelopardus and
into Perseus, where an important branch proceeds from its southern
border.

This branch beginning near the star _θ_, advances towards the
celebrated variable star Algol, around which it is quite bright and
complicated. Continuing its course in the same direction, the branch
rapidly loses its brightness, becoming very faint a little below Algol,
and passing through _ζ_ Persei, it enters Taurus, leaving the Pleiades
on its extreme southern margin; and after having passed through _ε_
where it branches off, it rapidly curves towards the main stream, which
it joins near _ζ_ Tauri, thus forming an immense loop. The ramification
projecting near _ε_ Tauri involves in its nebulosity the ruddy star
Aldebaran and the scattered group of the Hyades. It then advances
towards the three bright stars _δ_, _ε_ and _ζ_ of the belt of Orion,
which, together with the sextuple star _θ_ Orionis, are involved in its
faint nebulosity, and joins the main stream on the equinoctial, having
thus formed a second loop, whose interior part is comparatively free
from nebulosity, and contains the fine stars Betelgeuse and Bellatrix.

That portion of the main galactic stream which is comprised between the
star Deneb in Cygnus, and Capella in Auriga, is divided longitudinally
by a very irregular, narrow, darkish cleft, comparatively devoid of
nebulosity, which, however, is interrupted at some points. This dark gap
sends short branches north and south, the most important of which are
situated near _ζ_ Cephei and _β_ Cassiopeiæ. Another branch runs from
_γ_ beyond _ε_ of the constellation last mentioned. The main stream of
the Galaxy after leaving Perseus, enters Cassiopeia, and sending short
branches into Andromeda, it completes its immense circle in Cassiopeia's
chair, where this description was begun.

When examined through the telescope, the appearance of the Milky-way
completely changes, and its nebulous light is resolved into an immense
number of stars, too faint to be individually seen with the naked eye.
When Galileo first directed the telescope to the galactic belt, its
nebulous, cloud-like masses were at once resolved into stars, even by
the feeble magnifying power of his instrument. When, much later, Sir
William Herschel undertook his celebrated star-gaugings of the Galaxy,
millions of stars blazed out in his powerful telescopes. The stars
composing this great nebulous belt are so numerous that it is impossible
to arrive at any definite idea as to their number. From his soundings
Herschel estimated at 116,000 the number of stars which, on one
occasion, passed through the field of his telescope in 15 minutes, by
the simple effect of the diurnal motion of the heavens; and on another
occasion, a number estimated at 250,000 crossed the field in 41 minutes.
In a space of 50, comprised between _β_ and _γ_ Cygni, shown on Plate
XIII., he found no less than 331,000 stars. Prof. Struve has estimated
at 20,500,000 the number of stars seen in the Milky-way through the
twenty-foot telescope employed by Herschel in his star-gaugings. Great
as this number may seem, it is yet far below the truth; as the great
modern telescopes, according to Professor Newcomb, would very probably
double the number of stars seen through Herschel's largest telescope,
and detect from thirty to fifty millions of stars in the Milky-way.

Although the telescope resolves the Galaxy into millions of stars, yet
the largest instruments fail to penetrate its immense depths. The
forty-foot telescope of Herschel, and even the giant telescope of Lord
Rosse, have failed to resolve the Milky-way entirely into stars, the
most distant ones appearing in them as nebulosities upon which the
nearer stars are seen projected, the galactic stratum being unfathomable
by the largest telescopes yet made.

The stars composing the Milky-way are very unevenly distributed, as
might easily be supposed from the cloud-like appearance of this belt. In
some regions they are loosely scattered, forming long rows or streams of
various figures, while in others they congregate into star groups and
clusters having all imaginable forms, some being compressed into very
dense globular masses. The intervals left between the clustering masses
are poorer in stars, and indeed some of them are even totally devoid of
stars or nebulosity. Such are the great and small "coal-sacks" in the
southern Galaxy. I have myself detected such a dark space devoid of
stars and nebulosity in one of the brightest parts of the Milky-way, in
the constellation Sagittarius, in about 17h. 45m. right ascension, and
27° 35' south declination. It is a small miniature coal-sack or opening
in the Galaxy, through which the sight penetrates beyond this great
assemblage of stars. Close to this, is another narrow opening near a
small, loose cluster.

Although lacking the optical resources which now enable us to recognize
the structure of the Milky-way, some of the ancient philosophers had
succeeded tolerably well in their speculations regarding its nature. It
was the opinion of Democritus, Pythagoras and Manilius, that the Galaxy
was nothing else but a vast and confused assemblage of stars, whose
faint light was the true cause of its milky appearance.

Before the invention of the telescope, no well-founded theory in regard
to the structure of the Milky-way could, of course, be attempted.
Although Kepler entertained different ideas in regard to the structure
of this great belt from those now generally admitted, yet in them may be
found the starting point of the modern conception of the structure of
the Galaxy and of the visible universe. In the view of this great mind,
the Milky-way, with all its stars, formed a vast system, the centre of
which, and of the universe, was occupied by our Sun. Kepler reasoned
that the place of the Sun must be near the centre of the galactic belt,
from the fact this last object appears very nearly as a great circle of
the celestial sphere, and that its luminous intensity is about the same
in all its parts.

Half a century later, another attempt to explain the Milky-way was made
by Wright, of Durham, who rejected the idea of an accidental and
confused distribution of the stars as inconsistent with the appearance
of the Galaxy, and regarded them as arranged along a fundamental plane
corresponding to that of the Milky-way. These ideas which were
subsequently developed and enlarged by Kant, and then by Lambert,
constitute what is now known as Kant's theory. According to this theory,
the stars composing the Galaxy are conceived as being uniformly arranged
between two flat planes of considerable extension, but which are
comparatively near together, the Sun occupying a place not very far from
the centre of this immense starry stratum. As we view this system
crosswise through its thinnest parts, the stars composing it appear
scattered and comparatively few in number, but when we view it
lengthwiser through its most extended parts, they appear condensed and
extremely numerous, thus giving the impression of a luminous belt
encircling the heavens. In the conception of Kant, each star was a sun,
forming the centre of a planetary system. These systems are not
independent, but are kept together by the bonds of universal
gravitation. The Galaxy itself is one of these great systems, its
principal plane being the equivalent of the zodiac in our planetary
system, while a preponderant body, which might be Sirius, is the
equivalent of our Sun, and keeps the galactic system together. In the
universe there are other galaxies, but as they are too distant to be
resolved into stars, they appear as elliptical nebulæ. Such are, in
brief, the grand speculations of Kant and Lambert on the Milky-way, and
the structure of the universe.

Kant's theory rested more on conjectures than on observed facts, and
needed therefore the sanction of direct observations to be established
on a firm basis. With this view, Sir William Herschel investigated the
subject, by a long and laborious series of observations. His plan, which
was that of "star-gauging," consisted in counting all the stars visible
in his twenty-foot telescope, comprised in a wide belt cutting the
Galaxy at right angles, and extending from one of its sides to the
opposite one, thus embracing 180° of the celestial sphere. In this belt
he executed 3,400 telescopic star-gaugings of a quarter of a degree
each, from which he obtained 683 mean gaugings giving the stellar
density of the corresponding regions.

The general result derived from this immense labor was that the stars
are fewest in regions the most distant from the galactic belt; while
from these regions, which correspond to the pole of the Galaxy, they
gradually increase in number in approaching the Milky-way. The star
density was found to be extremely variable, and while some of the
telescopic gaugings detected either no star at all, or only one or two,
other gaugings gave 500 stars and even more. The average number of stars
in a field of view of his telescope, obtained for the six zones, each of
15°, into which Herschel divided up the portion of his observing belt,
extending from the Galaxy to its pole, is as follows: In the first zone,
commencing at 90° from the galactic belt and extending towards it, 4
stars per telescopic field were found; 5 in the second; 8 in the third;
14 in the fourth; 24 in the fifth and 53 in the sixth, which terminated
in the Galaxy itself. Very nearly similar results were afterwards found
by Sir John Herschel, for corresponding regions in the southern
hemisphere.

From these studies, Herschel concluded that the stellar system is of the
general form supposed by the Kantian theory, and that its diameter must
be five times as extended in the direction of the galactic plane, as it
is in a direction perpendicular to it. To explain the great branch sent
out by the Galaxy in Cygnus, he supposed a great cleft dividing the
system edgewise, about half way from its circumference to its centre.
From suppositions founded on the apparent magnitude and arrangement of
stars, he estimated that it would take light about 7,000 years to reach
us from the extremities of the Galaxy, and therefore 14,000 years to
travel across the system, from one border to the opposite one.

But Herschel's theory concerning the Milky-way rested on the erroneous
assumption that the stars are uniformly distributed in space, and also
that his telescopes penetrated through the entire depth of the Galaxy.
Further study showed him that his telescope of twenty feet, and even his
great forty-foot telescope, which was estimated to penetrate to a
distance 2,300 times that of stars of the first magnitude, failed to
resolve some parts of the Galaxy into stars. Meanwhile, the structure of
the Milky-way being better known, the irregular condensation of its
stars became apparent, while the mutual relation existing between binary
and multiple systems of stars, as also between the stars which form
clusters, was recognized, as showing evidence of closer association
between certain groups of stars than between the stars in general.
Herschel's system, which rested on the assumption of the uniform
distribution of the stars in space, and on the supposition that the
telescopes used for his gauges penetrated through the greater depths of
the Galaxy, being thus found to contradict the facts, was gradually
abandoned by its author, who adopted another method of estimating the
relative distances of the stars observed in his gaugings.

This method, founded on photometric principles, consisted in judging the
penetrating power of his telescope by the brightness of the stars, and
not, as formerly, by the number which they brought into view. He then
studied by this new method the structure of the Milky-way and the
probable distance of the clustering masses of which it is formed,
concluding that the portion of the Galaxy traversing the constellation
Orion is the nearest to us. This last result seems indicated by the fact
that this portion of the Milky-way is the faintest and the most uniform
of all the galactic belt.

More recently Otto Struve investigated the same subject, and arrived at
very nearly similar conclusions, which may be briefly stated as follows:
The galactic system is composed of a countless number of stars,
spreading out on all sides along a very extended plane. These stars,
which are very unevenly distributed, show a decided tendency to cluster
together into individual groups of different sizes and forms, separated
by comparatively vacant spaces. This layer where the stars congregate in
such vast numbers may be conceived as a very irregular flat disk,
sending many branches in various directions, and having a diameter eight
or ten times its thickness. The size of this starry disk cannot be
determined, since it is unfathomable in some directions, even when
examined with the largest telescopes. The Sun, with its attending
planets, is involved in this immense congregation of suns, of which it
forms but a small particle, occupying a position at some distance from
the principal plane of the Galaxy. According to Struve, this distance is
approximately equal to 208,000 times the radius of the Earth's orbit.
The Milky-way is mainly composed of star-clusters, two-thirds, perhaps,
of the whole number visible in the heavens being involved in this great
belt. In conclusion, our Sun is only one of the individual stars which
constitute the galactic system, and each of these stars itself is a sun
similar to our Sun. These individual suns are not independent, but are
associated in groups varying in number from a few to several thousands,
the Galaxy itself being nothing but an immense aggregation of such
clusters, whose whole number of individual suns probably ranges between
thirty and fifty millions. In this vast system our globe is so
insignificant that it cannot even be regarded as one of its members.
According to Dr. Gould, there are reasons to believe that our Sun is a
member of a small, flattened, bifid cluster, composed of more than 400
stars, ranging between the first and seventh magnitude, its position in
this small system being eccentric, but not very far from the galactic
plane.

The study of the Milky-way, of which Plate XIII. is only a part, was
undertaken to answer a friendly appeal made by Mr. A. Marth, in the
Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, in 1872. I take
pleasure in offering him my thanks for the suggestion, and for the
facility afforded me in this study by his "List of Co-ordinates of Stars
within and near the Milky-way," which was published with it.




THE STAR-CLUSTERS

PLATE XIV


It is a well-known fact that the stars visible to the naked eye are very
unequally distributed in the heavens, and that while they are loosely
scattered in some regions, in others they are comparatively numerous,
sometimes forming groups in which they appear quite close together.

In our northern sky are found a few such agglomerations of stars, which
are familiar objects to all observers of celestial objects. In the
constellation Coma Berenices, the stars are small, but quite condensed,
and form a loosely scattered, faint group. In Taurus, the Hyades and the
Pleiades, visible during our winter nights, are conspicuous and familiar
objects which cannot fail to be recognized. In the last group, six stars
may be easily detected by ordinary eyes on any clear night, but more can
sometimes be seen; on rare occasions, when the sky was especially
favorable, I have detected eleven clearly and suspected several others.
The six stars ordinarily visible, are in order of decreasing brightness,
as follows: Alcyone, Electra, Atlas, Maia, Taygeta and Merope. Glimpses
of Celano and Pleione are sometimes obtained.

When the sky is examined with some attention on any clear, moonless
night, small, hazy, luminous patches, having a cometary aspect, are
visible here and there to the naked eye. In the constellation Cancer is
found one of the most conspicuous, called Præsepe, which forms a small
triangle with the two stars _γ_ and _δ_. In Perseus, and involved in
the Milky-way, is found another luminous cloud, situated in the
sword-handle, and almost in a line with the two stars _γ_ and _δ_ of
Cassiopeia's Chair. In the constellation Hercules, another nebulous mass
of light, but fainter, is also visible between the stars _η_ and _ζ_
where it appears as a faint comet, in the depths of space. In Ophiuchus
and Monoceros are likewise found hazy, luminous patches. In the southern
sky, several such objects are also visible to the naked eye, being found
in Sagittarius, in Canis Major and in Puppis; but the most conspicuous
are those in Centaurus and Toucan. That in Centaurus involves the star
_ω_ in its pale diffused nebulosity, and that in Toucan is involved in
the lesser Magellanic cloud.

When the telescope is directed to these nebulous objects, their hazy,
ill-defined aspect disappears, and they are found to consist of
individual stars of different magnitudes, which being more or less
closely grouped together, apparently form a system of their own. These
groups, which are so well adapted to give us an insight into the
structure and the vastness of the stellar universe, are called
_Star-clusters_.

Star-clusters are found of all degrees of aggregation, and while in some
of them, such as in the Pleiades, in Præsepe and in Perseus, the stars
are so loosely scattered that an opera glass, and even the naked eye,
will resolve them; in others, such as in those situated in Hercules,
Aquarius, Toucan and Centaurus, they are so greatly compressed that even
in the largest telescopes they appear as a confused mass of blazing
dust, in which comparatively few individual stars can be distinctly
recognized. Although only about a dozen Star-clusters can be seen in the
sky with the naked eye, yet nearly eleven hundred such objects visible
through the telescope, have been catalogued by astronomers.

The stars composing the different clusters visible in the heavens vary
greatly in number, and while in some clusters there are only a few, in
others they are so numerous and crowded that it would be idle to try to
count them, their number amounting to several thousands. It has been
calculated by Herschel that some clusters are so closely condensed, that
in an area not more than ⅒ part of that covered by the Moon, at least
5,000 stars are agglomerated.

When the group in the Pleiades is seen through the telescope it appears
more important than it does to the naked eye, and several hundreds of
stars are found in it. In a study of Tempel's nebula, which is involved
in the Pleiades, I have mapped out 250 stars, mostly comprised within
this nebula, with the telescope of 6⅓ inches aperture, which I have
used for this study.

As a type of a loose, coarse cluster, that in Perseus is one of the
finest of its class. It appears to the naked eye as a single object, but
in the telescope it has two centres of condensation, around which
cluster a great number of bright stars, forming various curves and
festoons of great beauty. Among its components are found several yellow
and red stars, which give a most beautiful contrast of colors in this
gorgeous and sparkling region. In a study which I have made of this twin
cluster, I have mapped out 664 stars belonging to it, among which are
two yellow and five red stars.

While some clusters, like those just described, are very easily
resolvable into stars with the smallest instruments, others yield with
the greatest difficulty, even to the largest telescopes, in which their
starry nature is barely suspected. Owing to this peculiarity,
star-clusters are usually divided into two principal classes. In the
first class are comprised all the clusters which have been plainly
resolved into stars, and in the second all those which, although not
plainly resolvable with the largest instruments now at our disposal,
show a decided tendency to resolvability, and convey the impression that
an increase of power in telescopes is the only thing needed to resolve
them into stars. Of course this classification, which depends on the
power of telescopes to decide the nature of these objects, is arbitrary,
and a classification based on spectrum analysis is now substituted for
it.

The star-clusters are also divided into globular and irregular clusters,
according to their general form and appearance. The globular clusters,
which are the most numerous, are usually well-defined objects, more or
less circular in their general outlines. The rapid increase of
brightness towards their centres, where the stars composing them are
greatly condensed, readily conveys the impression that the general form
of these sparkling masses is globular. The irregular clusters are not so
rich in stars as the former. Usually their stars are less condensed
towards the centre, and are, for the most part, so loosely and
irregularly distributed, that it is impossible to recognize the outlines
of these clusters or to decide where they terminate. The globular
clusters are usually quite easily resolvable into stars, either partly
or wholly, although some among them do not show the least traces of
resolvability, even in the largest instruments. This may result from
different causes, and may be attributed either to the minuteness of
their components or to their great distance from the Earth, many
star-clusters being at such immense distances that they are beyond our
means of measurement.

As has been shown in the preceding section, the star-clusters are found
in great number in the Galaxy; indeed, it is in this region and in its
vicinity that the greater portion of them are found. In other regions,
with the exception of the Magellanic clouds, where they are found in
great number and in every stage of resolution, the clusters are few and
scattered.


[PLATE XIV.--STAR-CLUSTER IN HERCULES.

From a study made in June, 1877]


The star-cluster in the constellation Hercules, designated as No. 4,230
in Sir J. Herschel's catalogue, and which is represented on Plate XIV.,
is one of the brightest and most condensed in the northern hemisphere,
although it is not so extended as several others, its angular diameter
being only 7' or 8'. This object, which was discovered by Halley in
1714, is one of the most beautiful of its class in the heavens.
According to Herschel, it is composed of thousands of stars between the
tenth and fifteenth magnitudes. Undoubtedly the stars composing this
group are very numerous, although those which can be distinctly seen as
individual stars, and whose position can be determined, are not so many
as a superficial look at the object would lead us to suppose. From a
long study of this cluster, which I have made with instruments of
various apertures, I have not been able to identify more stars than are
represented on the plate, although the nebulosity of which this object
mainly consists, and especially the region situated towards its centre,
appeared at times granular and blazing with countless points of light,
too faint and too flickering to be individually recognized. Towards its
centre there is quite an extended region, whose luminous intensity is
very great, and which irresistibly conveys the impression of the
globular structure of this cluster. Besides several outlying appendages,
formed by its nebulosity, the larger stars recognized in this cluster
are scattered and distributed in such a way that they form various
branches, corresponding with those formed by the irresolvable
nebulosity. At least six or seven of these branches and wings are
recognized, some of which are curved and bent in various ways, thus
giving this object a distant resemblance to some crustacean forms.
Although I have looked for it with care, I have failed to recognize the
spiral structure attributed to this object by several observers. Among
the six appendages which I have recognized, some are slightly curved;
but their curves are sometimes in opposite directions, and two branches
of the upper portion make so short a bend that they resemble a claw
rather than a spiral wing. The spectrum of this cluster, like that of
many objects of its class, is continuous, with the red end deficient.

A little to the north-east of this object is found the cluster No.
4,294, which, although smaller and less bright than the preceding, is
still quite interesting. It appears as a distinctly globular cluster
without wings, and much condensed towards its centre. The stars
individually recognized in it, although less bright than those of the
other cluster, are so very curiously distributed in curved lines that
they give a peculiar appearance to this condensed region.

A little to the north of _γ_ Centauri may be found the great _ω_
Centauri cluster, No. 3,531, already referred to above. This magnificent
object, which appears as a blazing globe 20' in diameter, is, according
to Herschel, the richest in the sky, and is resolved into a countless
number of stars from the twelfth to the fifteenth magnitude, which are
greatly compressed towards the centre. The larger stars are so arranged
as to form a sort of net-work, with two dark spaces in the middle.

The great globular cluster No. 52, involved in the lesser Magellanic
cloud, in the constellation Toucan, is a beautiful and remarkable
object. It is composed of three distinct, concentric layers of stars,
varying in brightness and in degree of condensation in each layer. The
central mass, which is the largest and most brilliant, is composed of an
immense number of stars greatly compressed, whose reddish color gives to
this blazing circle a splendid appearance. Around the sparkling centre
is a broad circle, composed of less compressed stars, this circle being
itself involved in another circular layer, where the stars are fainter
and more scattered and gradually fade away.

Many other great globular clusters are found in various parts of the
heavens, among which may be mentioned the cluster No. 4,678, in
Aquarius. This object is composed of several thousand stars of the
fifteenth magnitude, greatly condensed towards the centre, and, as
remarked by Sir J. Herschel, since the brightness of this cluster does
not exceed that of a star of the sixth magnitude, it follows that in
this case several thousand stars of the fifteenth magnitude equal only a
star of the sixth magnitude. In the constellation Serpens the globular
clusters No. 4,083 and No. 4,118 are both conspicuous objects, also No.
4,687 in Capricornus. In Scutum Sobieskii the cluster No. 4,437 is one
of the most remarkable of this region. The stars composing it, which are
quite large and easily made out separately, form various figures, in
which the square predominates.

Among the loose irregular clusters, some are very remarkable for the
curious arrangement of their stars. In the constellation Gemini the
cluster No. 1,360, which is visible to the naked eye, is a magnificent
object seen through the telescope, in which its sparkling stars form
curves and festoons of great elegance. The cluster No. 1,467, of the
same constellation, is remarkable for its triangular form. In the
constellation Ara the cluster No. 4,233, composed of loosely scattered
stars, forming various lines and curves, is enclosed on three sides by
nearly straight single lines of stars. In Scorpio the cluster No. 4,224
is still more curious, being composed of a continuous ring of loosely
scattered stars, inside of which is a round, loose cluster, which is
divided into four parts by a dark cross-shaped gap, in which no stars
are visible.

Among the 1,034 objects which are now classified as clusters more or
less resolvable, 565 have been absolutely resolved into stars, and 469
have been only partly resolved, but are considered as belonging to this
class of objects. In Sir J. Herschel's catalogue there are 102 clusters
which are Considered as being globular; among them 30 have been
positively resolved into stars.

The agglomeration of thousands of stars into a globular cluster cannot
be conceived, of course, to be simply the result of chance. This
globular form seems clearly to indicate the existence of some bond of
union, some general attractive force acting between the different
members of these systems, which keeps them together, and condenses them
towards the centre. Herschel regards the loose, irregular clusters as
systems in a less advanced stage of condensation, but gradually
concentrating by their mutual attraction into the globular form.
Although the stars of some globular clusters appear very close together,
they are not necessarily so, and may be separated by great intervals of
space. It has been shown that the clusters are agglomeration of suns,
and that our Sun itself is a member of a cluster composed of several
hundreds of suns, although, from our point of observation, these do not
seem very close together. So far as known, the nearest star to us is a
Centauri, but its distance from the Earth equals 221,000 times the
distance of the Sun from our globe, a distance which cannot be traversed
by light in less than three years and five months. It seems very
probable that if the suns composing the globular clusters appear so near
together, it is because, in the first place, they are at immense
distances from us, and in the second, because they appear nearly in a
line with other suns, which are at a still greater distance from us, and
on which they accordingly are nearly projected. If one should imagine
himself placed at the centre of the cluster in Hercules, for instance,
the stars, which from our Earth seems to be so closely grouped, would
then quite likely appear very loosely scattered around him in the sky,
and would resemble the fixed stars as seen from our terrestrial station.

Judging by their loose and irregular distribution, the easily resolvable
clusters would appear, in general, to be the nearer to us. It is
probable that the globular clusters do not possess, to a very great
degree, the regular form which they ordinarily present to us. It seems
rather more natural to infer that they are irregular, and composed of
many wings and branches, such as are observed in the cluster in
Hercules; but as these appendages would necessarily be much poorer in
stars than the central portions, they would be likely to become
invisible at a great distance, and therefore the object would appear
more or less globular; the globular form being simply given by the close
grouping of the stars in the central portion. It would seem, then, that
in general, the most loosely scattered and irregular clusters are the
nearest to us, while the smallest globular clusters and those resolvable
with most difficulty are the most distant.

In accordance with the theory that the clusters are composed of stars,
the spectrum of these objects is in general continuous; although, in
many cases, the red end of the spectrum is either very faint or
altogether wanting. Many objects presenting in a very high degree the
principal characteristics exhibited by the true star-clusters, namely, a
circular or oval mass, whose luminous intensity is greatly condensed
toward the centre, have not yielded, however, to the resolving power of
the largest telescopes, although their continuous spectrum is in close
agreement with their general resemblance to the star-clusters. Although
such objects may remain irresolvable forever, yet it is highly probable
that they do not materially differ from the resolvable and partly
resolvable clusters, except by their enormous distance from us, which
probably reaches the extreme boundary of our visible universe.




THE NEBULÆ

PLATE XV


Besides the foggy, luminous patches which have just been described, a
few hazy spots of a different kind are also visible to the naked eye on
any clear, moonless night. These objects mainly differ from the former
in this particular, that when viewed through the largest telescopes in
existence they are not resolved into stars, but still retain the same
cloudy appearance which they present to the unassisted eye. On account
of the misty and vaporous appearance which they exhibit, these objects
have been called _Nebulæ_.

Of the 26 nebulous objects visible to the naked eye in the whole
heavens, 19 belong to the class of star-clusters, and 7 to the class of
nebulæ. Among the most conspicuous nebulæ visible to the unassisted
eye, are those in the constellations Argo Navis, Andromeda and Orion.

Besides the seven nebulæ visible to the naked eye, a great number of
similar objects are visible through the telescope. In Sir John
Herschel's catalogue of nebulæ and clusters, are found 4,053
irresolvable nebulæ, and with every increase of the aperture of
telescopes, new nebulæ, invisible in smaller instruments, are found.
Notwithstanding their irresolvability it is probable, however, that many
among them have a stellar structure, which their immense distance
prevents us from recognizing, and are not therefore true nebulæ. The
giant telescope of Lord Rosse has shown nebulæ so remote that it has
been estimated that it takes their light 30 million years to reach the
Earth.

The nebulæ are very far from being uniformly distributed in space. In
some regions they are rare, while in others they are numerous and
crowded together, forming many small, irregular groups, differing in
size and in richness of aggregation. The grouping of the nebulæ does
not occur at random in any part of the heavens, as might naturally be
supposed, but, on the contrary, it is chiefly confined to certain
regions. Outside of these regions nebulæ are rare and are separated
from each other by immense intervals; so that these isolated objects
appear as if they were lost wanderers from the great nebulous systems.

The regions where the nebulæ congregate in great number are very
extensive, and in a general view there are two vast systems of nebular
agglomeration, occupying almost opposite points of the heavens, whose
centres are not very distant from the poles of the Milky-way. In the
northern hemisphere, the nebulous system is much richer and more
condensed than in the southern hemisphere. The northern nebulæ are
principally contained in the constellations Ursa Minor and Major, in
Draco, Canes Venatici, Bootes, Leo Major and Minor, Coma Berenices, and
Virgo. In this region, which occupies about ⅛ of the whole surface of
the heavens, ⅓ of the known nebulæ are assembled. The southern
nebulæ are more evenly distributed and less numerous, with the
exception of two comparatively small, but very remarkable centres of
condensation which, together with many star-clusters, constitute the
Magellanic clouds.

These two vast nebular groups are by no means regular in outline, and
send various branches toward each other. They are separated by a wide
and very irregular belt, comparatively free from nebulæ, which
encircles the celestial sphere, and whose medial line approximately
coincides with that of the galactic belt. The Milky-way, so rich in
star-clusters, is very barren in nebulæ; but it is a very remarkable
fact, nevertheless, that almost all the brightest, largest, and most
complicated nebulæ of the heavens are situated either within it, or in
its immediate vicinity. Such are the great nebulæ in Orion and
Andromeda; the nebula of _ζ_ Orionis; the Ring nebula in Lyra; the
bifurcate nebula in Cygnus; the Dumb-bell nebula in Vulpecula; the Fan,
Horse-shoe, Trifid and Winged nebulæ in Sagittarius; the great nebula
around _η_ Argus Navis, and the Crab nebula in Taurus.

Aside from the discovery of some of the largest nebulæ by different
observers, and their subsequent arrangement in catalogues by Lacaille
and Messier, very little had been done towards the study of these
objects before 1779, when Sir W. Herschel began to observe them with the
earnestness of purpose which was one of the distinctive points of the
character of this great man. He successively published three catalogues
in 1786, 1789, and 1802, in which the position of 2,500 nebulous objects
was given. This number was more than doubled before 1864, when Sir John
Herschel published his catalogue of 5,079 nebulæ and star-clusters. To
this long list must be added several hundred similar objects, since
discovered by D'Arrest, Stephan, Gould and others. But, as has been
shown above, among the so-called nebulæ are many star-clusters which do
not properly belong to the same class of objects, it being sometimes
impossible in the present state of our knowledge to know whether a
nebulous object belongs to one class or to the other.

The nebulæ exhibit a great variety of forms and appearances, and, in
accordance with their most typical characters, they are usually divided
into several classes, which are: the Nebulous stars, the Circular, or
Planetary, the Elliptical, the Annular, the Spiral and Irregular
nebulæ.


[PLATE XV.--THE GREAT NEBULA IN ORION.

From a study made in the years 1875-76]


The so-called nebulous stars consist of a faint nebulosity, usually
circular, surrounding a bright and sharp star, which generally occupies
its centre. The nebulosity surrounding these stars varies in brightness
as well as in extent, and while, in general, its light gradually fades
away, it sometimes terminates quite suddenly. Such nebulosities are
usually brighter and more condensed towards the central star. The stars
thus surrounded do not seem, however, to be distinguished from others by
any additional peculiarity. Some nebulæ of this kind are round, with
one star in the centre; others are oval and have two stars, one at each
of their foci. The nebulous star, _τ_ Orionis, represented at the upper
part of Plate XV., above the great nebula, has a bright star at its
centre and two smaller ones on the side. The association of double stars
with nebulæ is very remarkable, and may in some cases indicate a mutual
relation between them.

The so-called planetary nebulæ derive their name from their likeness to
the planets, which they resemble in a more or less equable distribution
of light and in their round or slightly oval form. While some of them
have edges comparatively sharp and well defined, the outlines of others
are more hazy and diffused. These nebulæ, which are frequently of a
bluish tint, are comparatively rare objects, and most of those known
belong to the southern hemisphere. When seen through large telescopes,
however, they present a different aspect, and their apparent uniformity
changes. The largest of these objects, No. 2,343 of the General
Catalogue, is situated in the Great Bear, close to the star _β_. Its
apparent diameter is, according to Sir J. Herschel, 2', 40", and "its
light is equable, except at the edge, where it is a little hazy." In a
study which I made of this object in 1876, with a refractor 6⅓ inches
in aperture, I found it decidedly brighter on the preceding side, where
the brightest part is crescent shaped. In Lord Rosse's telescope its
disk is transformed into a luminous ring with a fringed border, and two
small star-like condensations are found within. Another planetary
nebula, near _χ_ Andromedæ, has also shown an annular structure in
Rosse's telescope.

The elliptical nebulæ, as their name implies, are elongated, elliptical
objects; but while some of them are only slightly elongated ovals,
others form ellipses whose eccentricity is so great that they appear
almost linear. In all these objects the light is more or less condensed
towards the centre; but while in some of them the condensation is
gradual and slight, in others it is so great and sudden that the centre
of the nebula appears as a large diffused star, somewhat resembling the
nucleus of a comet. From the general appearance of these objects, it is
not unlikely that some of them are either flattish, nebulous disks, like
the planetary nebulæ, or nebulous rings, seen more or less sidewise.
The condensation of light at their centres does not appear to be
stellar, but nebulous like the rest, and it is a remarkable fact that
very few, if any, of these objects are resolvable into stars.

Several elliptical nebulæ are remarkable for having a star at or near
each of their foci, or at each of their extremities. Such are the
elliptical nebulæ in Draco, Centaurus, and Sagittarius, Nos. 4,419,
3,706 and 4,395 of the General Catalogue, the last of which is in the
vicinity of the triple star _μ_ Sagitarii. Each of these nebulæ has a
star at each of its foci, while No. 1, in Cetus, has a star at each of
its extremities.

Among the most remarkable elliptic nebulæ may be mentioned Nos. 1,861
and 2,373 of Sir J. Herschel's catalogue, both situated in the
constellation Leo. The first is one of Lord Rosse's spiral nebulæ, and
the last, which is a very elongated object, is formed of concentric oval
rings, which are especially visible towards its central part. The
constellation Draco is particularly remarkable for the number of
elliptical nebulæ found within its boundaries. Among them are Nos.
3,939, 4,058, 4,064, 4,087, 4,415, etc., which are quite remarkable
objects of their class. No. 4,058, of which I have made a study, is
bright, and has a decided lenticular form with a condensation in the
centre. Its following edge is better defined than the preceding. In Lord
Rosse's telescope this object exhibits a narrow, dark, longitudinal, gap
in its interior.

By far the largest and the finest object of this class is the great
nebula in Andromeda. Although this object belongs rather to the class of
irregular nebulæ, yet it is generally considered as an elliptic nebula,
since its complicated structure, being less prominent, was not
recognized until 1848, when it was perceived by George P. Bond, Director
of the Harvard College Observatory. This, the first nebula discovered,
was found in 1612 by Simon Marius. It is situated in the constellation
Andromeda, in the vicinity of the star _ν_, and almost in a line with
the stars _μ_ and _β_ of the same constellation. It is visible to the
naked eye, and appears as a faint comet-like object. It is represented
at the upper left hand corner of Plate XIII., on the border of the
Milky-way, as it appears to the naked eye.

The nebula in Andromeda is one of the brightest in the heavens, and is
closely attended by two smaller nebulæ. Perhaps it would be rather more
correct to say that it has three centres of condensation, as the two
small nebulæ referred to are entirely involved in the same faint and
extensive nebulosity. Its general form is that of an irregular oval,
upwards of one degree in breadth and two and a half degrees in length.
Its brightest and most prominent part, which alone was seen by the
earlier observers, consists in a very elongated lenticular mass, which
gradually condenses towards its centre into a blazing, star-like
nucleus, surrounded by a brilliant nebulous mass. At a little distance
to the south of this central condensation is found one of the lesser
centres of condensation noted above, which is globular in appearance,
with a bright, star-like nucleus like the former. The other centre of
condensation is found to the north-west of the centre of the principal
mass, and is quite elongated, with a centre of condensation towards its
southern extremity, but it is not so bright as the others. Close to the
western edge of the bright lenticular mass first described, and making a
very slight angle with its longer axis, are found two narrow and nearly
rectilinear dark rifts, running almost parallel to each other, and both
terminating in a slender point in the south. These dark rifts, which are
almost totally devoid of nebulous matter, are quite rare in nebulæ, and
afford a good opportunity to watch the changes which this part of the
nebulæ may undergo.

This nebula has never been positively resolved into stars, although
Prof. Geo. Bond and others have strongly suspected its resolvability. In
a study which I have made of it, with the same instrument employed by
Bond, and also with the great Washington telescope, I detected a decided
mottled appearance in several places, which might be attributable to a
beginning of resolvability; but I do not consider this a conclusive
indication that the nebula is resolvable. The continuous spectrum given
by this nebula, showing that it is not in the gaseous state which its
appearance seems to indicate, warrants the conclusion, however, that it
will ultimately be found to be resolvable. This object, being situated
on the edge of the Galaxy and involved in its diffused light, has a
great number of small stars belonging to this belt projected upon it.
During my observations I have mapped out 1,323 of these stars, none of
which seems to be in physical connection with the nebula.

Among the circular and elliptical nebulæ a few exhibit a very
remarkable structure, being apparently perforated, and forming either
round, slightly oval, or elongated rings of great beauty. These Annular
nebulæ are among the rarest objects in the heavens. In Scorpio, two
such nebulæ are found involved in the Milky-way, and also one in
Cygnus. One of those in Scorpio has two stars involved within its ring,
at the extremities of its smallest interior diameter. A very elongated
nebula in the vicinity of the fine triple star _γ_ Andromedæ is also
annular, and has two stars symmetrically placed at the extremities of
its greatest interior axis. Another elongated annular nebula is also
found north of _η_ Pegasi.

The grandest and most remarkable of the annular nebulæ is found in the
constellation Lyra, about midway between the two stars _β_ and _γ_. It
is slightly elliptical in form, and according to Prof. E. S. Holden, its
major axis is 77".3 and the minor 58". From a study and several drawings
which I have made of this object, with instruments of various apertures,
I have found it decidedly brighter towards its outer border, at the
extremities of its minor axis, than at the ends of the major axis. On
very favorable occasions, some of its brightest parts have appeared
decidedly, but very faintly mottled, and I have recognized three small
centres of condensation. Its interior, in which Professor Holden has
detected a very faint star, is quite strongly nebulous. In Lord Rosse's
telescope, this nebula is completely surrounded by wisps and appendages
of all sorts of forms, which I have failed to trace, however, both with
the refractor of the Harvard College Observatory and with that of the
Naval Observatory at Washington; Rosse, Secchi and Chacornac, have seen
this nebula glittering as if it were a "heap of star dust," although its
spectrum indicates that it is gaseous.

The nebula No. 1,541, in Camelopardus, of which I have also made a study
and a drawing, is closely allied to the class of annular nebulæ. This
object, which is quite bright, has a remarkable appearance. It consists
principally of somewhat more than half of an oval ring, surrounding a
bright, nebulous mass which condenses around a star; this mass being
separated from the imperfect ring by a dark interval. Upon the bright
portion of the ring, and on opposite points, are found two bright stars,
between which lies the star occupying the central mass. The central mass
extends at some distance outside of the ring on its open side. Several
stars are involved in this object.

The Spiral nebulæ are very curious and complicated objects, but they
are visible only in the largest telescopes. Prominent above all is the
double spiral nebula No. 3,572, in Canes Venatici, which is not far from
_η_ Ursa Majoris. In Lord Rosse's telescope, this object presents a
wonderful spiral disposition, looking somewhat like one of the
fire-works called pin-wheels, and forming long, curved wisps, diverging
from two bright centres. The spectrum of this object, however, is not
that of a gas. In the constellation Virgo, Rosse has detected another
such nebula. In Cepheus, Triangulum, and Ursa Major, are found other
spiral nebulæ of smaller size. Lord Rosse has recognized 40 spiral
nebulæ and suspected a similar structure in 30 others.

The class of the Irregular nebulæ, which will be now considered,
differs greatly in character from the others, and includes the largest,
the brightest and the most extraordinary nebulæ in the heavens. The
nebulæ of this class differ from those belonging to the other classes
by a want of symmetry in their form and in the distribution of their
light, as well as by their capricious shapes, and their very complicated
structure. Another and perhaps the principal difference between them and
the objects above described, consists in the remarkable fact already
stated, that they are not, except in rare cases, to be found in the
regions where the other nebulæ abound. On the contrary, they are found
in or very near the Milky-way, precisely where the other nebulæ are the
most rare. This fact, recognized by Sir J. Herschel, led him to consider
them as "outlying, very distant, and as it were detached fragments of
the great stratum of the Galaxy." It seems very probable that the reason
why these objects differ so greatly from the other nebulæ in size,
brightness and complication of structure, is simply because they are
much nearer to us than are most of the others. They are perhaps nebulous
members of our Galaxy. The same remark which has been made of
star-clusters may be applied to nebulæ. The nearer they are to us, the
larger, the brighter and the more complicated they will appear, while
the farther they are removed, the more simple and regular and round they
will appear, only their brightest and deepest parts being then visible.

The Crab Nebula of Lord Rosse, near _ζ_ Tauri, No. 1,157, is one of the
interesting objects of this class. It has curious appendages streaming
off from an oval, luminous mass, which give it a distant resemblance to
the animal from which it derives its name. The Bifid nebula in Cygnus,
Nos. 4,400 and 4,616, is another object of this class. It consists of a
long, narrow, crooked streak, forking out at several places, and passing
through _χ_ Cygni. Observers, having failed to recognize the connection
existing between its different centres of brightness, have made distinct
nebulæ of this extended object.

The Dumb-bell nebula in Vulpecula, No. 4,532, is a bright and curious
object, with a general resemblance to the instrument from which it
derives its name. Lord Rosse's telescope has shown many stars in it,
projected on a nebulous background, and Prof. Bond seems to have thought
that it showed traces of resolvability, although in the study which I
made of this nebula with the same instrument used by the latter
observer, I failed to perceive any such traces. Dr. Huggins finds its
spectrum gaseous.

The star-cluster, No. 4,400, in Scutum Sobieskii, which is described by
Sir J. Herschel as a loose cluster of at least 100 stars, I have found
to be involved in an extensive, although not very bright, nebula, which
would seem to have escaped his scrutiny. In a study and drawing of this
nebula made in 1876, its general form is that of an open fan, with the
exception that the handle is wanting, with deeply indented branches on
the preceding side, where the brightest stars of the cluster are
grouped. From its peculiar form, this object might appropriately be
called the Fan nebula.

The Omega or Horse-shoe nebula, in Sagittarius, No. 4,403, of which I
have made a study and two drawings, one with a refractor 6⅓ inches in
aperture, and the other conjointly with Prof. Holden, with the great
telescope of the Naval Observatory, is a bright and very complicated
object. Its general appearance in small instruments, with low power, is
that of a long, narrow pisciform mass of light, from which proceeds on
the preceding side, the great double loop from which it derives its
name. But in the great Washington refractor its structure becomes very
complicated, forming various bright nebulous masses and wisps of great
extension. Prof. Holden, who has made a careful, comparative study of
the published drawings of this object, thinks there are reasons to
believe that its western branch has moved relatively to the stars found
within its loop. The spectrum of this nebula is gaseous.

The Trifid nebula, No. 4,355, in the same constellation, is also a very
remarkable object, although it is not so bright as the last. This
nebula, which I have studied with the refractor of the Cambridge
Observatory, consists of four principal masses of light, separated by a
wide and irregular gap branching out in several places. These masses,
which are brighter along the dark gap, gradually fade away externally. A
group of stars, two of which are quite bright, is found near the centre
of the nebula, on the inner edge of the following mass, and close to the
principal branch of the dark channel. A little to the north, and
apparently forming a part of this nebula, is a globular-looking nebula,
having a pale yellow star at its centre. Prof. Holden's studies on this
nebula show that the triple star, which was centrally situated in the
dark gap from 1784 to 1833, was found involved in the border of the
nebulous mass following it, from 1839 to 1877; the change, he thinks,
is attributable either to the proper motion of the group of stars or to
that of the nebula itself.

In the same vicinity is found the splendid and very extensive nebula No.
4,361, in which is involved a loose, but very brilliant star-cluster.
This nebula and cluster, which I have studied and drawn with a 6⅓ inch
telescope, is very complicated in structure, and divided by a dark
irregular gap into three principal masses of light, condensing at one
point around a star, and at others forming long, bright, gently-curved
branches, which give to this object a strong resemblance to the wings of
a bird when extended upwards in the action of flying. From this
peculiarity this object might appropriately be called the Winged nebula.
Its spectrum is that of a gas.

The variable star _η_ Argus is completely surrounded by the great
nebula of the same name, No. 2,197, first delineated by Sir J. Herschel,
during his residence at the Cape of Good Hope, in 1838. This object,
which covers more than ⁴⁄₇ of a square degree, is divided into
three unequal masses, separated by dark oval spots, comparatively free
from nebulosity, and is suspected to have undergone changes since
Herschel's time.

In the same field with the double star, _ζ_ Orionis, the most easterly
of the three bright stars in the belt of Orion, is found another
irregular nebula of the Trifid type. From the drawings which I have made
of this object, it appears to be composed of three principal unequal
masses, separated by a wide, irregular, dark channel, two of the masses
being quite complicated in structure, and forming curved, nebulous
streams of considerable length and breadth. This nebula, like the next
to be described, seems to be connected with the Galaxy by the great
galactic loop described in another section.

By far the most conspicuous irregular nebula visible from our northern
States, is the great nebula in Orion, No. 1,179, represented on Plate
XV. This object, visible to the naked eye, is the brightest and the most
wonderful nebula in the heavens. It is situated a little to the south of
the three bright stars in the belt of Orion, and may be readily detected
surrounding the star _θ_, situated between and in a line with two faint
stars, the three being in a straight line which points directly towards
_ε_, the middle star of the three in Orion's belt. The area occupied by
this nebula is about equal to that occupied by the Moon.

In its brightest parts the nebula in Orion appears as a luminous cloud
of a pentagonal form, from which issue many luminous appendages of
various shapes and lengths. This principal mass is divided into
secondary masses, separated by darkish, irregular intervals. These
secondary masses in their turn appear mottled and fleecy. Towards the
lower part of the pentagonal mass is found a roundish dark space,
comparatively devoid of nebulosity, in which are involved four bright
stars forming a trapezium, and several fainter ones. The four bright
stars of the trapezium constitute the quadruple star _θ_ Orionis, from
which the nebula has received its name. The cloud-like pentagonal form
is brightest on the north-west of the trapezium, and is surrounded on
three sides by long, soft, curved wisps, fading insensibly into the
outer nebulous mass in which they are involved. On the east a broad,
wavy wing spreads out, and sends an important branch southward.
South-east of the trapezium are found several curious dark spaces,
comparatively devoid of nebulosity, especially those on the east, which
give to this nebula a singular character. Close to the north-eastern
part of the nebula, or rather in contact with it, is found a small,
curiously-shaped nebula, condensing around a bright star into a blazing
nucleus. From this centre it continues northward in a narrow diffused
stream, which spreads out in passing over the stars _c^1_ and _c^2_; and
after having sent short branches northward, it curves back to the south
and joins the main nebula on the west of its starting point, having thus
formed a great loop which is not shown on the Plate. The nebula also
forms a loop towards the south, which is partly shown on Plate XV., a
small branch of which, passing through _τ_ Orionis, the nebulous star
shown at the top of the Plate, and extending southward, is not here
represented.

On ordinary nights the nebula in Orion is a splendid object, and
inspires the observer with amazement; but this is as nothing compared
with the grand and magnificent sight which it presents during the very
rare moments when our atmosphere is perfectly clear and steady. I have
seen this nebula but once under these favorable circumstances, and I was
surprised by the grandeur of the scene. Then could be detected features
to be seen at no other time, and its fleecy, floculent, cloud-like
masses glittered with such intensity that it seemed as if thousands of
stars were going to blaze out the next moment. Although I observed the
nebula under such favorable conditions, and with the fifteen-inch
refractor of the Cambridge Observatory, yet I was disappointed in my
expectations, and distinguished no new stars or points of light, and
nothing more than a very bright mass, finely divided into minute blazing
cloudlets. Although I failed to resolve this nebula into stars, yet Lord
Rosse, Bond and Secchi thought they had caught glimpses of star dust.
Its spectrum, however, proves to be mainly that of incandescent gases,
probably hydrogen and nitrogen. In the curved wisps found in this
nebula, Lord Rosse and others saw indications of a spiral structure.

Several bright stars are found scattered over this nebula, and besides
those forming the trapezium, there are three in a row, a little to the
south-east of that group, which are quite bright and remarkable. Among
the stars involved in this nebula, few show signs of having a physical
connection with it, although it seems probable that the group of the
trapezium is so connected. Some of these stars are variable. The small
stars represented on this Plate, as on others of the series, are
somewhat exaggerated in size, as was unavoidable with any process of
reproduction which could be adopted.

In 1811, W. Herschel was led to suspect that some changes had occurred
in this nebula, but changes in such complicated and delicate objects are
not easily ascertained, since, for the most part, we have for comparison
with our later observations only coarse drawings made by hands unskilled
in delineation.

Although comparatively rare, double and multiple nebulæ may be found in
the sky. When this occurs, their constituents most commonly belong to
the class of spherical nebulæ. Sometimes the components are separated
and distinct, at other times one of them is projected upon the other,
either really or by the effect of perspective. Sometimes one is round
and the other elongated. It is probable that while some of these nebulæ
are physically associated and form a system, others appear to be so only
because they happen to be almost in a line with the observer. A double
nebula in Draco, Nos. 4,127 and 4,128, which I have drawn, is a fair
type of those which are separated. The first is a globular nebula, and
the last an oval one, with a star at its centre. The double nebula, Nos.
858 and 859, in Taurus, which I have also studied, is a type of the
cases in which one nebula is partly projected on another. In this
instance both the nebulæ are globular.

The nebulæ in general show very little color in their light, which is
ordinarily whitish and pale. Some, however, present a decided bluish or
greenish tint. The great nebula in Orion has a greenish cast, and we
have seen that some planetary nebulæ are bluish.

It has been a question whether nebulæ are changing. It has already been
stated that Prof. Holden believes there is ground to suspect that the
Trifid and Horse-shoe nebulæ have undergone some changes. A nebula near
_ε_ Tauri has been lost and found again several times. Two other
nebulæ in the same constellation have presented curious variations.
One, near a star of the tenth magnitude, exhibited variations of
brightness like those of the star itself, and for a time disappeared.
The other, near _ζ_ Tauri, increased in brightness for three months,
after which it disappeared. In 1859 Tempel discovered a nebula in the
Pleiades, which has shown some fluctuations. In 1875 I made a long study
of this object, and drew it carefully a dozen times, but I was not able
to see any changes in it within the two or three months during which my
observations were continued. But on Nov. 24, 1876, it was found of a
different color, being purplish and very faint. On Dec. 23, 1880, it was
found just as bright and visible as when I drew it in 1875, and on Oct.
20, 1881, it appeared faint and purplish again, as in 1876. On this last
night, and on those which followed it, it was impossible for me to trace
the nebulosity as far as in 1875. I consider this as due to a variation
in the light of this object, which in 1875 was bright enough to be well
seen while the Moon after her First Quarter was within ten or fifteen
degrees from the Pleiades.

From the observations of M. Laugier, it appears that some nebulæ have a
proper motion, comparable to that of stars. From the displacement of the
lines of their spectra by their motion in the line of sight, Dr. Huggins
found that no nebula observed by him has a proper motion surpassing 25
miles per second. The Ring nebula in Lyra appears to move from us at the
rate of 3 miles per second, and that in Orion recedes about 17 miles per
second.

The important question arises, are all the irresolvable nebulæ in the
heavens to be considered as so many star-clusters, differing only from
them by the minuteness of their components, or their immense distance
from us; or are they cosmical clouds, composed of luminous vapors,
similar to the matter composing the heads and tails of comets?
Originally, W. Herschel, with many astronomers, thought that all these
objects were stellar aggregations, too distant to be resolved into
stars; but he subsequently modified his opinion, and accepted the idea
that some of them are of a gaseous nature.

No direct proof that the nebulæ are gaseous could be obtained, however,
before the spectroscope was known. The attempt to analyze the light of
the nebulæ with this instrument was made in 1864, by Dr. Huggins, who
directed his spectroscope to the planetary nebula, No. 4,373, in Draco.
Its spectrum was found to consist of three bright, distinct lines, the
brightest of which corresponded with the strongest nitrogen line, and
the feeblest with the hydrogen C line. Besides these lines, it gave also
a very faint, continuous spectrum, apparently due to a central point of
condensation. By this observation, the gaseous nature of a nebula was
for the first time demonstrated. Dr. Huggins thus analyzed 70 nebulæ,
of which one-third gave a gaseous spectrum, consisting of several bright
lines, the brightest of which invariably corresponded with the lines of
nitrogen. The others gave a continuous spectrum, with the red end
usually deficient. These results indicate that if some of the so-called
nebulæ are due to an aggregation of stars, either too minute or too
remote in space to be individually resolved, others are in a gaseous
state. Yet the faint, continuous spectrum, given by some nebulæ, in
addition to their gaseous spectra, seems to show that these nebulæ have
some stars or matter in a different state, either involved in them or
projected on their surface.

The idea of diffused matter distributed here and there in space, and
gradually condensing into stars, is by no means new. As early as 1572,
Tycho Brahé proposed such an hypothesis, to explain the sudden
apparition of a new star in Cassiopeia, which he considered as formed by
the recent agglomeration of the "celestial matter" diffused in space.
Kepler adopted the same idea to explain the new star which appeared in
Ophiuchus, in 1604. Halley, Lacaille, Mairan and others, entertained the
same opinion. The hypothesis of a self-luminous, nebulous matter
diffused in space, and forming here and there immense masses, has been
proposed from the origin of the telescope, and was adopted by Sir
William Herschel, who in his grand speculations on the universe
considered the nebulæ as immense masses of phosphorescent vapors,
gradually condensing around one or several centres into stars or
clusters of stars. The evidence afforded by the spectroscope seems to be
in favor of such an hypothesis, and shows us that gaseous agglomerations
exist in space.

According to our modern conception, the visible universe is but an
infinitely small portion of the infinite universe perceived by our mind.
The great blazing centre around which our little, non-luminous globe
pursues its endless journey, is only an humble member of a cluster
comprising four hundred equally powerful suns, as they are believed to
be, although they appear to us as little twinkling stars. The nearest of
these stars is 221,000 times as far from the Sun as the Sun is from the
Earth, and yet this entire cluster is only one among the several hundred
Star-clusters composing the great galactic nebula in which we are
involved, comprising thirty or fifty millions of such suns. Among the
4,000 irresolvable nebulæ in the sky, perhaps over one-half are
supposed to be galaxies, like our own galaxy, composed of star-clusters,
and millions of stars. Besides these remote galaxies, vast
agglomerations of yet uncondensed, nebulous matter exist in space, and
form the nebulæ proper, in which the genesis of suns is slowly
elaborated. Although the visible universe is limited by the penetrating
power of our instruments, yet we see in imagination the infinite
universe stretching farther and farther; but we know not whether this
invisible universe is totally devoid of matter, or whether it also is
filled with millions and millions of suns and galaxies.




APPENDIX

KEY TO THE PLATES


PLATE I.--GROUP OF SUN-SPOTS AND VEILED SPOTS.

_Observed June_ 17, 1875, _at 7h. 30m. A. M._


The background shows the sun's visible surface, or _photosphere_, as
seen with a telescope of high power at the most favorable moments,
composed of innumerable light markings, or granules, separated by a
network of darker gray. The granules, each some hundreds of miles in
width, are thought to be the flame-like summits of the radial filaments
or columns of gas and vapor which compose the photospheric shell. The
two principal sun-spots of the group here represented show the
characteristic dark _umbra_ in the centre, overhung by the thatch-like
_penumbra_, composed of whitish gray filaments. The penumbral filaments
are not supposed to differ in their nature from those constituting the
ordinary photosphere, save that they are seen here elongated and
violently disturbed by the force of gaseous currents. Both spots are
traversed partly or wholly by bright overlying _faculæ_, or so-called
_luminous bridges_, depressed portions of which, in the left-hand spot,
form the _gray and rosy veils_ commonly attendant upon this class of
spots. In each of these spots, also, the inner ends of projecting
penumbral filaments have fallen so far within the umbra as to appear
much darker than the rest. At the right of the upper portion of the
left-hand spot, is a mass of white facular clouds, honey-combed by dark
spaces, through which are seen traces of the undeveloped third spot of
the triple group first observed. If seen upon the sun's limb, this would
have presented the appearance of a _lateral spot_. Above the right-hand
spot is a small black "dot," or incipient spot, without distinct
penumbra. The irregular dark rift below the two large spots and
connecting them is a spot of the crevasse type, with very slight umbra,
a still better example of which is seen in a westward
prolongation of the penumbra of the left-hand spot. In the upper
left-hand corner of the Plate are seen several small _faculæ_,
appearing as irregular whitish streaks amongst the granules. In the
pear-shaped darkening of the solar surface below and at their left, is
seen a veiled spot, two of which attended this group.

_Approximate scale, 2500 miles--1 inch._


PLATE II.--SOLAR PROTUBERANCES.

_Observed May_ 5, 1873, _at 9h. 40m. A. M._


A view of an upheaval of the _chromosphere_, or third outlying envelope
of the sun, as observed with the tele-spectroscope, or telescope with
spectroscope attached.

The _method of the observation_ requires a word of explanation. Save on
the rare occasions of a total solar eclipse, no direct telescopic view
of the solar prominences or flames is possible, owing to the fact that
the intense white light from the sun's main disk entirely obscures
the feeble pink light of the chromosphere. A few years ago Messrs.
Jannsen and Lockyer found that a spectroscope of high dispersive power
so weakens the spectrum of ordinary sun-light as to show the spectrum of
bright lines given by the chromosphere, on any clear day. The telescope
is adjusted so that a portion of the sun's limb, usually near a group of
active sun-spots, shall be presented before the opened slit of the
spectroscope. The light of the chromosphere thus admitted along with
some diffused sun-light from the earth's atmosphere, produces a spectrum
of intensely bright lines, widely separated, on the fainter background
of the strongly dispersed spectrum of sun-light. The most prominent of
these bright lines are those known as the C line (_scarlet_), F line
(_blue_), which with several others are due to the hydrogen present in
the chromosphere, the D{3} line (_orange_) ascribed to a little known
substance called "helium", and occasionally the sodium lines D{1}, D{3},
(_yellow_). By adjusting the slit upon the scarlet C line, the
appearances represented in Plate II. were observed as through an
atmosphere of scarlet light: in the D or F lines identical appearances
may be seen, but somewhat less clearly defined, as through yellow or
blue light respectively. Hence the solar times, as here observed with
the spectroscope in the hydrogen C line, are seen through a portion only
(the scarlet rays) of the light coming from but one substance (hydrogen)
of the companion incandescent substances present in the chromosphere.
The color of the collective chromospheric light is seen directly with
the telescope during an eclipse (See Plate III.) to be a delicate rosy
pink.


_Description of the Plate._--The black background represents the general
darkness of the eye-piece to the spectroscope. The broad red stripe
stretching from top to bottom of the Plate is a portion of the red band
of the spectrum, magnified about 100 times as compared with the actual
spectroscopic view. The upper and lower edges of the cross-section of
dusky red correspond with the edges of the slit, opened widely enough to
admit a view of the chromospheric crest and of the whole height of the
protuberances at once. With a narrower opening of the slit this
background would have been nearly black, its reddish cast increasing
with the amount of opening and consequent admission of diffused
sun-light. Rising above the lower edge of the opening is seen a small
outer segment of the chromosphere, which, as a portion of the sun's
eastern limb, should be imagined as moving directly towards the
beholder. The seams and rifts by which its surface is broken, as well as
the distorted forms of the huge protuberances show the chromosphere to
be in violent agitation. Some of the most characteristic shapes of the
_eruptive protuberances_ are presented, as also _cloud-like_ forms
overtopping the rest. In the immediate foreground the bases of two
towering columns appear deeply depressed below the general horizon of
the segment observed, showing an extraordinary velocity of motion of the
whole uplifted mass toward the observer. The highest of these
protuberances was 126,000 miles in height at the moment of observation.
The triple protuberance at the left with two drooping wings and a tall
swaying spire tipped with a very bright flame, shows by its more
brilliant color the higher temperature (and possibly compression) to
which its gases have been subjected. The irregular black bands behind
this protuberance indicate the presence there of less condensed and
cooler clouds of the same gases. The dimmer jets of dame rising from the
chromosphere are either vanishing protuberances, or, as in the case of
the smallest jet shown at the extreme right of the horizon, are the tops
of protuberances just coming into view.

_Approximate scale, 6000 miles--1 inch._


PLATE III.--TOTAL ECLIPSE OF THE SUN.

_Observed July_ 29, 1878, _at Creston, Wyoming Territory._


A telescopic view of the sun's _corona_ or extreme outer atmosphere and
of the _solar flames_ or _prominences_ during a total eclipse. At the
moment of observation the dark disk of the moon, while still hiding the
sun's main body, had passed far enough eastward to allow the rosy pink
chromospheric prominences to be seen on its western border. On all sides
of the sun's hidden disk, the _corona_ shows its pale greenish light
extending in halo-like rays and streamers, and two very remarkable wings
stretch eastward and westward very nearly in the plane of the ecliptic
and in the direction of the positions of Mercury and Venus respectively
at the time of observation. The full extent of these wings could not be
shown in the Plate without reducing its scale materially, since the
westerly wing extended no less than twelve times the sun's diameter, and
the easterly wing nearly as far, or over ten million miles. A circlet of
bright light immediately bordering the moon's disk is the so-called
_inner corona_, next to which the wings and streamers arc brightest,
thence shading off imperceptibly into the twilight sky of the eclipse.
Other noteworthy peculiarities of the corona, as observed during this
eclipse, are the varying angles at which the radiating streamers are
seen to project, the comparatively dark intervals between them, and the
curved, wisp-like projections seen upon the wings. An especially
noticeable gap appears where the most westerly of the upward streamers
abruptly cuts off the view of the long wing. The largest and brightest
of the curving streamers on the westerly wing coincides with the highest
flame-like protuberance. To some observers of this eclipse the upward
and downward streamers seemed pointed at their outer extremities and
less regular in form.

_Approximate scale, 135,000 miles--1 inch._


PLATE IV.--AURORA BOREALIS.

_As observed March_ 1, 1872, _at 9h. 25m. P. M._


The view presents the rare spectacle of an aurora spanning the sky from
east to west in concentric arches. The Polar Star is nearly central in
the background, the constellation of the Great Bear on the right and
Cassiopeia's chair on the left. The large star at some distance above
the horizon on the right is Arcturus. The almost black inner segment of
the aurora resting upon the horizon, has its summit in the magnetic
meridian, which was in this case a little west of north, its arc being
indented by the bases of the ascending streamers. Both streamers and
arches were, when observed, tremulous with upward pulsations and there
was also a wave-like movement of the streamers from west to east. The
prevailing color of this aurora is a pale whitish green and the
complementary red appears especially at the west end of the auroral
arch. The summits of the streamers are from four hundred to live hundred
miles above the earth and the aurora is therefore a phenomenon of the
terrestrial atmosphere rather than of astronomical observation proper.


PLATE V.--THE ZODIACAL LIGHT.

_Observed February_ 20, 1876.


An observation of the cone of light whose axis lies along the Zodiac,
whence it derives its name. It is drawn as seen in the west, with its
base in the constellation Pisces, and its apex near the familiar group
of the Pleiades in the constellation Taurus. The first bright star above
the horizon in the base of the cone is the planet _Venus_ and at some
distance above is the reddish disk of _Mars_, the two being in rare
companionship as evening stars. Above the constellation Pisces, two
bright stars of Aries lie just outside the cone at the right. The
nearest bright star above these at the right is _Beta_, the leading star
of the constellation Triangula. Further at the right the three prominent
stars nearly in a line are, in ascending order, _Delta_, _Beta_ and
_Gamma_ of the constellation Andromeda. Above these at the left, the
brightest star of a quadrangular group of four is the remarkable
variable star _Algol_ (_Beta_) of the constellation Perseus, which
changes from the second to the fourth magnitude in a period of less than
three days. At the left and a little above the Pleiades is the ruddy
star _Aldebaran_, one of the Hyades and chief star in the constellation
Taurus. These are the principal stars visible in this portion of the sky
at the time of the observation. Their relative positions are represented
as seen in the sky and not by the common method of star-atlases, which
allows for the change from a spherical to a plane surface. Their
magnitude in the order of brightness is indicated only approximately.


PLATE VI.--MARE HUMORUM.

_From a study made in 1875._


A view of one of the lunar plains, or so-called _seas_ (_Maria_), with
an encircling mountainous wall consisting of volcano-like craters in
various stages of subsidence and dislocation. The sun-light coming from
the west casts strong shadows from all the elevations eastward, and is
just rising on the _terminator_, where the rugged structure of the
Moon's surface is best seen. The lighter portions are the more elevated
mountainous tracts and crater summits. The detailed description of this
Plate given in the body of the Manual is repeated here for convenience
of reference: The Mare Humorum, or sea of moisture, as it is called, is
one of the smaller gray lunar plains. Its diameter, which is very nearly
the same in all directions, is about 270 miles, the total area of this
plain being about 50,000 square miles. It is one of the most distinct
plains of the Moon, and is easily seen with the naked eye on the
left-hand side of the disk. The floor of the plain is, like that of the
other gray plains, traversed by several systems of very extended but low
hills and ridges, while small craters are disseminated upon its surface.
The color of this formation is of a dusky greenish gray along the
border, while in the interior it is of a lighter shade, and is of
brownish olivaceous tint. This plain, which is surrounded by high clefts
and rifts, well illustrates the phenomena of dislocation and subsidence.
The double-ringed crater Vitello, whose walls rise from 4,000 to 5,000
feet in height, is seen in the upper left-hand corner of the gray plain.
Close to Vitello at the east is the large broken ring-plain Lee, and
farther east, and a little below, is a similarly broken crater called
Doppelmayer. Both of these open craters have mountainous masses and
peaks on their door, which is on a level with that of the Mare Humorum.
A little below, and to the left of these objects, is dimly seen a deeply
imbedded oval crater, whose walls barely rise above the level of the
plain. On the right-hand side of the great plain is a long _fault_, with
a system of fracture running along its border. On this right-hand side
may be seen a part of the line of the terminator, which separates the
light from the darkness. Towards the lower right-hand corner is the
great ring-plain Gassendi, 55 miles in diameter, with its system of
fractures and its central mountains, which rise from 3,000 to 4,000 feet
above its floor. This crater slopes towards the plain, showing the
subsidence to which it has been submitted. While the northern portion of
the wall of this crater rises to 10,000 feet, that on the plain is only
500 feet high, and is even wholly demolished at one place where the
floor of the crater is in direct communication with the plain. In the
lower part of the sea, and a little to the west of the middle line, is
found the crater Agatharchides, which shows below its north wall the
marks of rills impressed by a flood of lava, which once issued from the
side of the crater. On the left-hand side of the plain is seen the
half-demolished crater Hippalus resembling a large bay, which has its
interior strewn with peaks and mountains. On this same side can be seen
one of the most important systems of clefts and fractures visible on the
Moon, these clefts varying in length from 150 to 200 miles.

_Approximate scale, 15 miles--1 inch._


PLATE VII.--PARTIAL ECLIPSE OF THE MOON.

_Observed October_ 24, 1874.


A view of the Moon partially obscured by the Earth's shadow, whose
outline gives ocular proof of the earth's rotundity of form. The
shadowed part of the Moon's surface is rendered visible by the diffused
sun-light refracted upon it from the earth's atmosphere. Its reddish
brown color is due to the absorption, by vapors present near the earth's
surface, of a considerable part of this dim light. On both the obscured
and illuminated tracts the configurations of the Moon's surface are seen
as with the naked eye. The craters appear as distinct patches of lighter
color, and the noticeably darker areas are the depressed plains or
_Maria_. The large crater _Tycho_, at the lower part of the disk, is the
most prominent of these objects, with its extensive system of _radiating
streaks_. The largest crater above is _Copernicus_, at the left of which
is _Kepler_ and still above are _Aristarchus_ and _Herodotus_ appearing
as if blended in one. Above and at the left of the great crater _Tycho_,
the first dark tract is the _Mare Humorum_ of Plate VI., seen in its
natural position, with the crater _Gassendi_ at its northern (upper)
extremity and _Vitello_ on its southern (lower) border. The advancing
border of the shadow appears, as always, noticeably darker than the
remainder, an effect probably of contrast. The illuminated segment of
the Moon's disk has its usual appearance, the lighter portions being the
more elevated mountainous surfaces, and the dark spaces the floors of
extensive plains.

_Approximate scale, 140 miles--1 inch._


PLATE VIII.--THE PLANET MARS.

_Observed September_ 3, 1877, _at 11h. 55m. P. M._

A view of the southern hemisphere of Mars, when in the most favorable
position for observation, and when exceptionally free from the clouds,
which very frequently hide its surface configurations. Since, of all the
planets, Mars is most like the earth, Plate VIII. may give a fair idea
of the appearance of our globe to a supposed observer on Mars. The dark
gray and black markings, are regarded as tracts of water, or of some
liquid with similar powers of absorbing light; and, for the same reason,
the lighter portions, of a prevailing reddish tint, are supposed to be
bodies of land, while the bright white portions are variously due to
clouds, to polar snow or ice, and the bright rim of white along the
limb, to the depth of the atmosphere through which the limb is seen. The
chief permanent features of the planet's surface have been named in
honor of various astronomers.

The large dark tract on the left is _De La Rue Ocean_, the isolated oval
spot near the centre is _Terby Sea_, and on the right is the western end
of _Maraldi Sea_, with strongly indented border. Directly north of
(below) De La Rue Ocean, is _Maedler Continent_; above it stretches
_Jacob Land_; and surrounding Terby Sea is _Secchi Continent_. Extending
into the centre of De La Rue Ocean is a curious double peninsula,
called, in consequence of the dimness of former observations, _Hall
Island_. The sharply defined, white-crested northern borders of De La
Rue Ocean and Maraldi Sea may indicate the existence there of lofty
coast ranges, more or less constantly covered with opaque clouds
strongly reflecting light. The white spot in the centre of Maedler
Continent, of a temporary nature, has a similar explanation. The
intervals of olivaceous gray on Secchi Continent and elsewhere may
perhaps be ascribed to the flooding and drying up of marshes and
lowlands, as these markings have been observed to vary somewhat in
connection with the change of seasons on Mars. The greenish tints
observed along the planet's limb, alike on the darker and lighter
surfaces, are probably due to an optical effect, the green being
complementary to the prevailing red of the disk. The brilliant oval
white spot near the southern (upper) pole of the planet is a so-called
polar spot, in all probability consisting of a material similar to snow
or ice and here observed in the midst of a dark open sea.

_Approximate scale, 300 miles--1 inch._


PLATE IX.--THE PLANET JUPITER.

_Observed November_ 1, 1880, _at 9h. 30m. P. M._

This planet is perpetually wrapped in dense clouds which hide its inner
globe from view. The drawing shows Jupiter's outer clouded surface with
its usual series of alternate light and dark belts, the disk as a whole
appearing brighter in the centre than near the limb. The darker gray and
black markings indicate in general the lower cloud-levels; that is,
partial breaks or rifts in the cloudy envelope, whose prevailing depth
apparently exceeds four thousand miles. While the deepest depression in
the cloudy envelope is within the limits of the Great Red Spot, the
vision may not even here penetrate very deeply. Two of Jupiter's four
moons present bright disks near the planet's western limb, and cast
their shadows far eastward on the disk, that of the "second satellite"
falling upon the Red Spot. On the Red Spot are seen in addition two
small black spots, no explanation of which can yet be offered. The broad
white ring of clouds bordering the Red Spot appeared in constant motion.
The central, or equatorial belt, shows brilliant cloudy masses of both
the _cumulus_ and _stratus_ types, and the underlying gray and black
cloudy surfaces are pervaded with the pinkish color characteristic of
this belt. The dark circular spots on the wide white belt next north
showed in their mode of formation striking resemblances to sun-spots.
They afterward coalesced into a continuous pink belt. The diffusion of
pinkish color over the three northernmost dark bands, as here observed,
is unusual. About either pole is seen the uniform gray segment or polar
cap. The equatorial diameter is noticeably longer than the polar
diameter, a consequence of the planet's extraordinary swiftness of
rotation. To the same cause may also be due chiefly the distribution of
the cloudy belts parallel to the planet's equator, though the analogy of
the terrestrial trade-winds fails to explain all the observed phenomena.

_Approximate scale, 5,500 miles--1 inch._


PLATE X.--THE PLANET SATURN.

_Observed November_ 30, 1874, _at 5h. 50m. P. M._


Saturn is unique amongst the planets in that its globe is encircled by a
series of concentric rings, which lie in the plane of its equator, and
consist, according to present theories, of vast throngs of minute bodies
revolving about the planet, like so many satellites, in closely parallel
orbits. The globe of Saturn, like that of Jupiter, is surrounded by
cloudy belts parallel to its equator. The broad equatorial belt, of a
delicate pinkish tint, is both brighter and more mottled than the
narrower yellowish white belts, which alternate with darker belts of
ashy gray on both the north and south sides, but are seen here only on
the northern side. The disk has an oval shape, owing to the extreme
polar compression of the globe.

The outer, middle and inner rings, with their various subdivisions, are
clearly shown in Plate X., and are best seen on the so-called _ansæ_,
or handles, projecting on either side. The gray _outer ring_ is
separated by the dusky pencil line into two divisions, both of which
appear slightly mottled on the ansæ, as if with clouds. The _middle
ring_ has three sub-divisions which are clearly distinguishable,
although separated by no dark interval, viz., a brilliant white outer
zone, distinctly mottled, as seen on the extremities of the ansæ, and
two interior zones of gradually diminishing brightness. The _gauze_ or
_dusky ring_ is seen at its full width on the ansæ, but on the
background of the strongly illuminated globe only its outer and
presumably denser border is visible. The shadow of the globe on the
rings is seen on the lower portion of the eastern ansæ. The shadow on
the dusky ring is with difficulty perceptible; the shadow on the middle
ring is slightly concave toward the planet, which concavity is abruptly
increased on the outer zone of this ring; while the shadow on the outer
ring slants away from the globe. These appearances are fully accounted
for by supposing a general increase of level from the inner edge of the
dusky ring to the outer margin of the middle ring, and a uniform lower
level on the outer ring. Other observers have regarded the deflection of
the shadow as an effect of irradiation. The inner margin of the double
outer ring presents on both ansæ a number of slight indentations,
which, if not actual irregularities in the contour of this ring, may be
explained as shadows caused by elevations on the outer border of the
middle ring, or possibly by over-hanging clouds.

_Approximate scale, 6,500 miles--1 inch._


PLATE XI.--THE GREAT COMET OF 1881.

_Observed on the night of June_ 25-26, _at 1h. 30m. A. M._


A view of the comet 1881, III., drawn as if seen with the naked eye, the
minute details, however, being reproduced as seen with the telescope.
The star-like _nucleus_ is attended by four conical wings which cause it
to appear diamond-shaped. The _coma_ appears double, the brilliant inner
coma, immediately enveloping the nucleus, being surrounded by a fainter
exterior coma, which has a noticeable depression corresponding to that
of the inner edge of the principal coma. The tail is divided lengthwise
by a dark rift and is brightest on its convex or forward side. An inner
portion of the tail, brighter than the rest, is more strongly curved, as
if by solar repulsion. Stars are seen through the brighter parts of the
tail, as they may be seen even through the coma and nucleus, with little
diminution of their light.


PLATE XII.--THE NOVEMBER METEORS.

_As observed on the night of November_ 13-14, 1868.


A partially ideal view of the November Meteors, combining forms observed
at different times during the night of Nov. 13th, 1868. It is not,
however, a fanciful view, since a much larger number of meteors were
observed falling at once during the shower of November, 1833, and at
other times. The locality of the observation is shown by the Polar Star
seen near the centre of the Plate, and Cassiopeia's Chair at the left.
The general direction of the paths of the meteors is from the
north-east, the _radiant point_ of the shower having been in the
constellation Leo, beyond and above Ursa Major. While the orbits of the
meteors are, in general, curved regularly and slightly, several are
shown with very eccentric paths, among them one which changed its course
at a sharp angle. In the upper left-hand corner appear two vanishing
trails of the "ring-form," and several others still further transformed
into faint luminous patches of cloud. Red, yellow, green, blue and
purple tints were observed in the meteors and their trails, as
represented in the Plate.


PLATE XIII.--PART OF THE MILKY WAY.

_From a study made during the years_ 1874, 1875 _and_ 1876.


The course of the portion of the Galaxy represented in Plate XIII. is as
follows: From Cassiopeia's chair, three bright stars of which appear at
the upper edge of the Plate, the Galaxy, forming two streams, descends
south, passing partly through Lacerta on the left, and Cepheus on the
right; at this last point it approaches nearest to the Polar Star, which
is itself outside of the field of view. Then it enters Cygnus, where it
becomes very complicated and bright, and where several large cloudy
masses are seen terminating its left branch, which passes to the right,
near the bright star _Deneb_, the leader of this constellation. Below
_Deneb_, the Galaxy is apparently disconnected and separated from the
northern part by a narrow, irregular dark gap. From this rupture, the
Milky-way divides into two great streams, separated by an irregular dark
rift. An immense branch extends to the right, which, after having formed
an important luminous mass between the stars _Gamma_ and _Beta_,
continues its southward progress through parts of Lyra, Vulpecula,
Hercules, Aquila and Ophiuchus, where it gradually terminates a few
degrees south of the equator. The main stream on the left, after having
formed a bright mass around _Epsilon Cygni_, passes through Vulpecula
and then Aquila, where it crosses the equinoctial just below the star
_Eta_, after having involved in its nebulosity the bright star _Altair_,
the leader of Aquila. In the southern hemisphere the Galaxy becomes very
complicated and forms a succession of very bright, irregular masses, the
upper one being in Scutum Sobieskii, while the others are respectively
situated in Sagittarius and in Scorpio; the last, just a little above
our horizon, being always considerably dimmed by vapors. From Scutum
Sobieskii, the Galaxy expands considerably on the right, and sends a
branch into Scorpio, in which the fiery red star _Antares_ is somewhat
involved. In the upper left-hand corner of the Plate, at some distance
from the Milky-way, is seen dimly the Nebula in Andromeda, which becomes
so magnificent an object to telescopic view.


PLATE XIV.--STAR-CLUSTER IN HERCULES.

_From a study made in June_, 1877.


In the constellation Hercules, a small nebulous mass is faintly visible
to the eye, a telescopic view of which is presented in Plate XIV. It is
one of the most beautiful of the easily resolvable globular clusters.
The brilliancy of the centre gives the cluster a distinctly globular
appearance, while the several wings curving in various directions, have
suggested to some observers an irregularly spiral structure. The large
stars of the cluster are arranged in several groups which correspond, in
a general way, with the faintly luminous wings.


PLATE XV.--THE GREAT NEBULA IN ORION.

_From a study made in the years_ 1875-76.


This nebula, which is one of the most brilliant and wonderful of
telescopic objects, readily visible to the naked eve as a patch of
nebulous light immediately surrounding the middle star of the three
which form the sword of Orion, and a little south of the three
well-known stars forming the belt. The small stars in this, as in other
Plates of the series, are somewhat exaggerated in size, as was
unavoidable with any mode of reproduction that could be employed. The
bright pentagonal centre of the nebula is traversed by less luminous
rifts, the several subdivisions thus outlined being irregularly mottled
as if by bright fleecy clouds. Toward the lower part of this bright
pentagonal centre is a comparatively dark space containing four bright
stars which form a trapezium and together constitute the quadruple star
_Theta Orionis_, which, to the naked eye, appears as the single star in
the centre of the sword. On three sides of the central mass extend long
bright wisps, whose curves fail, however, to reveal the spiral structure
often attributed to this nebula. On the east a broad wing, with
wave-shaped inner border, stretches southward. East of the trapezium are
two especially noticeable dark spaces. Close to the main nebula on the
north-east, a small faint nebula surrounds a bright star, and a branch
from another faint stream of nebulous matter forming a loop to the
southward, encloses the nebulous star (_Iota Orionis_) shown at the top
of the Plate.

*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TROUVELOT ASTRONOMICAL
DRAWINGS MANUAL ***

Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will
be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the
United States without permission and without paying copyright
royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm
concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following
the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use
of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for
copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very
easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation
of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project
Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away--you may
do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected
by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark
license, especially commercial redistribution.

START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic works

1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the
person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph
1.E.8.

1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be
used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.

1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the
Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual
works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting
free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm
works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily
comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when
you share it without charge with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no
representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear
prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work
on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the
phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed,
performed, viewed, copied or distributed:

  This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
  most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
  restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
  under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
  eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
  United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
  you are located before using this eBook.

1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is
derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project
Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm
trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works
posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
beginning of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg-tm License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format
other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official
version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain
Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the
full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
provided that:

* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
  the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
  you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
  to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has
  agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
  within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
  legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
  payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
  Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
  Literary Archive Foundation."

* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
  you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
  does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
  License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
  copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
  all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm
  works.

* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
  any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
  electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
  receipt of the work.

* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
  distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than
are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
without further opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in
accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or
additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any
Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm

Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
www.gutenberg.org

Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation

The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.

The Foundation's business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,
Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation's website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation

Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without
widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest
array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular
state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate

Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works

Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.