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  THE HOBO
  THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE HOMELESS MAN




  THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS

  THE BAKER AND TAYLOR COMPANY, NEW YORK
  THE CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS, LONDON
  THE MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA, TOKYO
  THE MISSION BOOK COMPANY, SHANGHAI




  THE HOBO

  THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE
  HOMELESS MAN


  BY NELS ANDERSON


  A STUDY PREPARED FOR THE CHICAGO
  COUNCIL OF SOCIAL AGENCIES UNDER
  THE DIRECTION OF THE COMMITTEE
  ON HOMELESS MEN


  [Illustration: (Publisher colophon.)]


  THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS
  CHICAGO · ILLINOIS




  COPYRIGHT 1923 BY THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO
  ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
  PUBLISHED MAY 1923


  COMPOSED AND PRINTED BY
  THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS
  CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, U.S.A.




EDITOR’S PREFACE


The present volume is intended to be the first of a series of
studies of the urban community and of city life. The old familiar
problems of our communal and social life--poverty, crime, and
vice--assume new and strange forms under the conditions of
modern urban existence. Inherited custom, tradition, all our
ancient social and political heritages--human nature itself--have
changed and are changing under the influence of the modern urban
environment.

The man whose restless disposition made him a pioneer on the
frontier tends to become a “homeless man”--a hobo and a vagrant--in
the modern city. From the point of view of their biological
predispositions, the pioneer and the hobo are perhaps the same
temperamental type; from the point of view of their socially
acquired traits, they are something quite different.

The city, more than any other product of man’s genius and labors,
represents the effort of mankind to remake the world in accordance
with its wishes, but the city, once made, compels man to conform
to the structure and the purposes he himself has imposed upon it.
If it is true that man made the city, it is quite as true that
the city is now making man. That is certainly a part of what we
mean when we speak of the “urban” as contrasted with the “rural”
mind. In any case, it is true that within the circle of these
two tendencies, man’s disposition, on the one hand, to create a
world in which he can live, and, on the other, to adapt himself to
the world which he himself has created, all, or most all of the
problems and the processes are included with which the student of
society is positively concerned. These processes go on, and these
problems arise everywhere that men, coming together in order to
live, find themselves compelled to carry on a common and communal
life. In cities, however, and particularly in great cities, where
social life is more intense than elsewhere, the processes produce
new and strange effects, and the problems are more poignant and
pressing.

A changing population of from 30,000 to 75,000 homeless men in
Chicago, living together within the area of thirty or forty city
blocks, has created a milieu in which new and unusual personal
types flourish and new and unsuspected problems have arisen.

If the city were to be identified, as it sometimes has been,
with its mere physical structure, its buildings, streets,
street railways, telephones, and other communal efficiencies;
if the city were, in fact, a mere complex of mechanical and
administrative devices for realizing certain clearly defined
purposes, the problem of the city would be one of engineering
and of administration merely. But this takes no account of human
nature; it takes no account of what we have come to refer to in
industry as the “problem of personnel.” At least it seems to
assume that the individual men and women for whom these organized
agencies--economic, social, and political--exist, and by whom
they are conducted, remain, in all their varied associations
and relations, practically the same. Recent observation, on the
other hand, has led to the conclusion that human nature, as we
ordinarily understand it, while it is based on certain fundamental
but not clearly definable human traits and predispositions, is
very largely a product of the environment, and particularly the
human environment in which the individual happens to find himself.
That means that every community, through the very character of the
environment which it imposes upon the individuals that compose
it, tends to determine the personal traits as it does determine
the language, the vocation, social values, and, eventually, the
personal opinions, of the individuals who compose it.

It is the purpose of this and the succeeding studies in this series
to describe the changes that are taking place in the life of the
city and its peoples, and to investigate the city’s problems in
the light of these changes, and conditions of life generally of
urban people. For this reason, this study of the “homeless man” has
sought to see him, first of all, in his own habitat; in the social
milieu which he has created for himself within the limits of the
larger community by which he is surrounded, but from which he is,
in large part, an outcast.

It is interesting to notice that within the area of his own
social environment, the hobo has created, or at least there has
grown up in response to his needs, a distinct and relatively
independent local community, with its own economic, social, and
social-political institutions.

It is assumed that the study here made of the “Hobohemia” of
Chicago, as well as the studies that are being planned for other
areas and aspects of the city and its life, will at least be
comparable with the natural areas and the problematic aspects of
other American cities. It is, in fact, the purpose of these studies
to emphasize not so much the particular and local as the generic
and universal aspects of the city and its life, and so make these
studies not merely a contribution to our information but to our
permanent scientific knowledge of the city as a communal type.

  ROBERT E. PARK




COMMITTEE’S PREFACE


The Committee on Homeless Men was organized by the Executive
Committee of the Chicago Council of Social Agencies on June 16,
1922, to study the problem of the migratory casual worker. Its
members included men and women in contact with the problem of
homeless men from different points of view.

Mr. Nels Anderson, a graduate student in sociology in the
University of Chicago, was selected to make the study. Mr. Anderson
was already thoroughly familiar with the life of the migratory
casual worker. He had shared their experiences “on the road” and
at work, and had visited the Hobohemian areas of many of the
large western cities. In the summer of 1921, he made a study of
400 migrants. Early in 1922, through the generous assistance and
encouragement of Dr. William A. Evans, Dr. Ben L. Reitman, and
Joel D. Hunter, he began a study of homeless men in Chicago, in
connection with a field-study course at the University of Chicago.

The assumption of this study by the Chicago Council of Social
Agencies, in co-operation with the Juvenile Protective Association,
enabled an enlargement of its scope.[1]

The object of this inquiry, from the standpoint of the Committee,
was to secure those facts which would enable social agencies to
deal intelligently with the problems created by the continuous
ebb and flow, out of and into Chicago, of tens of thousands of
foot-loose and homeless men. Only through an understanding both
of the human nature of the migratory casual worker, and of the
economic and social forces which have shaped his personality,
could there be devised any fundamental program for social agencies
interested in his welfare.

Earlier studies of the migratory casual workers in the United
States have been limited almost entirely to statistical
investigation. In the present inquiry a more intensive study of
cases was decided upon in preference to an extensive statistical
survey. For the past twelve months Mr. Anderson lived in Hobohemia,
and in a natural and informal way secured upward of sixty
life-histories, and collected, in addition, a mass of documents
and other materials which are listed in Appendix B. Mr. Anderson
has had, in certain parts of the field work, the assistance of C.
W. Allen, L. G. Brown, G. F. Davis, B. W. Bridgman, F. C. Frey,
E. H. Koster, G. S. Sobel, H. D. Wolf, and R. N. Wood, students
in sociology at the University of Chicago, and has utilized
the results of past studies of this subject by students in the
department.

The Committee on Homeless Men held many meetings which were devoted
to outlining the plan of investigation, to reports upon the
progress of field work, and to the drafting of the findings and
recommendations which appear as Appendix A.

The Committee and the author are indebted to the social agencies
and to the many persons who co-operated in furnishing data for this
investigation. They desire also to express their appreciation to
Professor Robert E. Park for the inclusion of this volume as the
first of a series of studies on the urban community of which he is
editor, and for his services in the preparation of the manuscript
for publication.

  ERNEST W. BURGESS, _Chairman_
  University of Chicago

  WILFRED S. REYNOLDS, _Secretary_
  Director, Chicago Council of Social Agencies

  BRIGADIER JOHN E. ATKINS
  Salvation Army, Workingman’s Palace

  MISS JESSIE BINFORD
  Juvenile Protective Association

  MRS. JOSEPH T. BOWEN
  Juvenile Protective Association

  FREDERICK S. DEIBLER
  Advisory Board, Illinois Free Employment Service

  T. ARNOLD HILL
  Chicago Urban League

  JOEL D. HUNTER
  United Charities of Chicago

  M. J. KARPF
  Jewish Social Service Bureau

  GEORGE B. KILBEY
  Chicago Christian Industrial League

  REV. MOSES E. KILEY
  Central Charity Bureau

  BRIGADIER DAVID MILLER
  Salvation Army

  DR. BEN L. REITMAN
  Chicago Department of Health

  WILLOUGHBY G. WALLING
  President, Chicago Council of Social Agencies


FOOTNOTES:

[1] A part of the investigation relating to the effects upon the
boy of association with tramps, especially made for the Juvenile
Protective Association, is not included in this report, but will
appear in an early number of the _Journal of the American Institute
of Criminal Law and Criminology_.




TABLE OF CONTENTS


  PART I. HOBOHEMIA, THE HOME OF
  THE HOMELESS MAN


                                                         PAGE

  LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS                                    xv

  CHAPTER

      I. HOBOHEMIA DEFINED                                  3

     II. THE JUNGLES: THE HOMELESS MAN ABROAD              16

    III. THE LODGING-HOUSE: THE HOMELESS MAN AT HOME       27

     IV. “GETTING BY” IN HOBOHEMIA                         40


  PART II. TYPES OF HOBOS

   CHAPTER

      V. WHY DO MEN LEAVE HOME?                            61

     VI. THE HOBO AND THE TRAMP                            87

    VII. THE HOME GUARD AND THE BUM                        96

   VIII. WORK                                             107


  PART III. THE HOBO PROBLEM

   CHAPTER

     IX. HEALTH                                           125

      X. SEX LIFE OF THE HOMELESS MAN                     137

     XI. THE HOBO AS A CITIZEN                            150


  PART IV. HOW THE HOBO MEETS
  HIS PROBLEM

   CHAPTER

    XII. PERSONALITIES OF HOBOHEMIA                       171

   XIII. THE INTELLECTUAL LIFE OF THE HOBO                185

    XIV. HOBO SONGS AND BALLADS                           194

     XV. THE SOAP BOX AND THE OPEN FORUM                  215

    XVI. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HOBO ORGANIZATION           230

   XVII. MISSIONS AND WELFARE ORGANIZATIONS               250


  APPENDIXES

  A. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS              265

  B. DOCUMENTS AND MATERIALS                              281

  C. BIBLIOGRAPHY                                         291


  INDEX                                                   299




LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS


                                                       FACING
                                                         PAGE

  A JUNGLE CAMP                                            10

  SUMMER RESORTING BEHIND FIELD MUSEUM, CHICAGO            10

  A DINING-ROOM ON THE “MAIN STEM”                         34

  EMPLOYMENT BUREAUS                                       34

  LEADERS IN THE EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENT                      88

  A POPULAR RESORT IN HOBOHEMIA                            88

  DR. BEN L. REITMAN                                      172

  MEMBERS OF THE JEFFERSON PARK INTELLIGENTSIA            186

  THE HOBO READS PROGRESSIVE LITERATURE                   186

  THE SOAP-BOX ORATOR--THE ECONOMIC ARGUMENT              216

  AN OUTDOOR MISSION MEETING--THE RELIGIOUS PLEA          216

  JAMES EADS HOW                                          236

  A FREE LUNCH AT A MISSION                               258

  A WINTER’S NIGHT IN A MISSION                           258




  PART I

  HOBOHEMIA, THE HOME OF
  THE HOMELESS MAN




CHAPTER I

HOBOHEMIA DEFINED

    All that Broadway is to the actors of America, West Madison
    is to its habitués--and more. Every institution of the
    Rialto is paralleled by one in West Madison. West Madison
    Street is the Rialto of the hobo.

    The hobos, themselves, do not think of Madison Street as
    the Rialto; they call it “The Main Stem,” a term borrowed
    from tramp jargon, and meaning the main street of the
    town. “The Main Stem” is a more fitting term, perhaps,
    than the Rialto, but still inadequate. West Madison Street
    is more than a mere Rialto, more than the principal hobo
    thoroughfare of Chicago. It is the Pennsylvania Avenue,
    the Wilhelmstrasse of the anarchy of Hobohemia.--From an
    unpublished paper on the hobo, by Harry M. Beardsley, of
    the _Chicago Daily News_, March 20, 1917.


A survey of the lodging-house and hotel population, supplemented by
the census reports of the areas in which they live, indicates that
the number of homeless men in Chicago ranges from 30,000 in good
times to 75,000 in hard times.

We may say that approximately one-third of these are permanent
residents of the city. The other two-thirds are here today and gone
tomorrow. When work is plentiful they seldom linger in the city
more than a week at a time. In winter when jobs are scarce, and it
takes courage to face the inclement weather, the visits to town
lengthen to three weeks and a month. From 300,000 to 500,000 of
these migratory men pass through the city during the course of a
normal year.

A still larger number are wanderers who have spent their days and
their strength on the “long, gray road” and have fled to this haven
for succor. They are Chicago’s portion of the down-and-outs.

    An investigation of 1,000 dependent, homeless men made in
    Chicago in 1911 indicated that 254, or more than one-fourth
    of the 1,000 examined, were either temporarily crippled
    or maimed. Some 89 of this 1,000, or 9 per cent, were
    manifestly either insane, feeble-minded, or epileptic. This
    did not include those large numbers of border-line cases in
    which vice or an overwhelming desire to wander had assumed
    the character of a mania.

    Homeless men are largely single men. Something like 75 per
    cent of the cases examined were single, while only 9 per
    cent admitted they were married.


“MAIN STEMS”

Every large city has its district into which these homeless types
gravitate. In the parlance of the “road” such a section is known
as the “stem” or the “main drag.” To the homeless man it is home,
for there, no matter how sorry his lot, he can find those who will
understand. The veteran of the road finds other veterans; the
old man finds the aged; the chronic grouch finds fellowship; the
radical, the optimist, the crook, the inebriate, all find others
here to tune in with them. The wanderer finds friends here or
enemies, but, and that is at once a characteristic and pathetic
feature of Hobohemia, they are friends or enemies only for the day.
They meet and pass on.

Hobohemia is divided into four parts--west, south, north, and
east--and no part is more than five minutes from the heart of the
Loop. They are all the “stem” as they are also Hobohemia. This
four-part concept, Hobohemia, is Chicago to the down-and-out.


THE “SLAVE MARKET”

To the men of the road, West Madison Street is the “slave market.”
It is the slave market because here most of the employment
agencies are located. Here men in search of work bargain for jobs
in distant places with the “man catchers” from the agencies. Most
of the men on West Madison Street are looking for work. If they
are not seeking work they want jobs, at least; jobs that have long
rides thrown in. Most of the men seen here are young, at any rate
they are men under middle age; restless, seeking, they parade the
streets and scan the signs chalked on the windows or smeared over
colored posters. Eager to “ship” somewhere, they are generally
interested in a job as a means to reach a destination. The result
is that distant jobs are in demand while good, paying, local jobs
usually go begging.

West Madison, being a port of homeless men, has its own
characteristic institutions and professions. The bootlegger is at
home here; the dope peddler hunts and finds here his victims; here
the professional gambler plies his trade and the “jack roller,” as
he is commonly called, the man who robs his fellows, while they
are drunk or asleep; these and others of their kind find in the
anonymity of this changing population the freedom and security that
only the crowded city offers.

The street has its share also of peddlers, beggars, cripples, and
old, broken men; men worn out with the adventure and vicissitudes
of life on the road. One of its most striking characteristics is
the almost complete absence of women and children; it is the most
completely womanless and childless of all the city areas. It is
quite definitely a man’s street.

West Madison Street, near the river, has always been a stronghold
of the casual laborer. At one time it was a rendezvous for the
seamen, but of late these have made South Chicago their haven.
Even before the coming of the factories, before family life had
wholly departed, this was an area of the homeless man. It will
continue to be so, no doubt, until big businesses or a new union
depot crowds the hobo out. Then he will move farther out into
that area of deteriorated property that inevitably grows up just
outside the business center of the city, where property, which
has been abandoned for residences, has not yet been taken over by
businesses, and where land values are high but rents are low.

Jefferson Park, between Adams and Monroe and west of Throop Street,
is an appanage of the “slave market.” It is the favorite place for
the “bos” to sleep in summer or to enjoy their leisure, relating
their adventures and reading the papers. On the “stem” it is known
as “Bum Park,” and men who visit it daily know no other name
for it. A certain high spot of ground in the park is generally
designated as “Crumb Hill.” It is especially dedicated to “drunks.”
At any rate, the drunk and the drowsy seem inevitably to drift to
this rise of ground. In fact, so many men visit the place that the
grass under the trees seems to be having a fierce struggle to hold
its own. It must be said, however, that the men who go to “Bum
Park” are for the most part sober and well behaved. It is too far
out for the more confirmed Madison Street bums to walk. The town
folks of the neighborhood use the park, to a certain extent, but
the women and children of the neighborhood are usually outnumbered
by the men of the road, who monopolize the benches and crowd the
shady places.


HOBOHEMIA’S PLAYGROUND

The thing that characterizes State Street south of the Loop is the
burlesque show. It is here that the hobo, seeking entertainment, is
cheered and gladdened by the “bathing beauties” and the oriental
dancers. Here, also, he finds improvement at the hands of the lady
barbers, who, it is reported, are using these men as a wedge to
make their way into a profitable profession that up to the present
time has belonged almost wholly to men.

South State Street differs from West Madison in many particulars.
For one thing there are more women here, and there is nothing
like so complete an absence of family life. The male population,
likewise, is of a totally different complexion. The prevailing
color is an urban pink, rather than the rural grime and bronze
of the man on the road. There are not so many restless, seeking
youngsters.

Men do not parade the streets in groups of threes and fours with
their coats or bundles under their arms. There are no employment
offices on this street. They are not needed. Nobody wants to go
anywhere. When these men work they are content to take some short
job in the city. Short local jobs are at a premium. Many of these
men have petty jobs about the city where they work a few hours a
day and are able to earn enough to live. In winter many men will be
found in the cheap hotels on South State, Van Buren, or South Clark
streets who have been able to save enough money during the summer
to house themselves during the cold weather. State Street is the
rendezvous of the vagabond who has settled and retired, the “home
guard” as they are rather contemptuously referred to by the tribe
of younger and more adventurous men who still choose to take the
road.

The white man’s end of the south section of Hobohemia does not
extend south of Twelfth Street. From that point on to about
Thirtieth Street there is an area that has been taken over by the
colored population. Colored people go much farther south, but if
there are any homeless men in the “Black Belt,” they are likely to
be found along State Street, between Twenty-second and Thirtieth.
The Douglas Hotel, in this region, is a colored man’s lodging-house.

To the south and southwest are the railroad yards. In summer
homeless men find these yards a convenient place to pass the night.
For those who wish to leave the city, they are the more accessible
than the yards on the north and west. The railroad yard is, in most
places, one of the hobo’s favorite holdouts. It is a good place
to loaf. There are coal and wood and often vacant spaces where he
can build fires and cook food or keep warm. This is not so easily
done in Chicago where the tramp’s most deadly enemy, the railroad
police, are numerous and in closer co-operation with the civil
authorities than in most cities. In spite of this, hobos hang about
the yards.


“BUGHOUSE SQUARE”

On the north side of the river, Clark Street below Chicago Avenue
is the “stem.” Here a class of transients have drifted together,
forming a group unlike any in either of the other areas of
Hobohemia. This is the region of the hobo intellectuals. This area
may be described as the rendezvous of the thinker, the dreamer, and
the chronic agitator. Many of its denizens are “home guards.” Few
transients ever turn up here; they do not have time. They alone
come here who have time to think, patience to listen, or courage to
talk. Washington Square is the center of the northern area. To the
“bos” it is “Bughouse Square.” Many people do not know any other
name for it. This area is as near to the so-called Latin Quarter
as the hobo dare come. “Bughouse Square” is, in fact, quite as
much the stronghold of the more or less vagabond poets, artists,
writers, revolutionists, of various types as of the go-abouts.
Among themselves this region is known as the “village.”

Bohemia and Hobohemia meet at “Bughouse Square.” On Sundays and
holidays, any evening, in fact, when the weather permits, it
will be teeming with life. At such times all the benches will be
occupied. On the grass in the shade of the trees men sit about
in little groups of a dozen or less. The park, except a little
corner to the southeast where the women come to read, or knit, or
gossip, while the children play, is completely in possession of
men. A polyglot population swarms here. Tramps, and hobos--yes,
but they are only scatteringly represented. Pale-faced denizens of
the Russian tearooms, philosophers and enthusiasts from the “Blue
Fish,” brush shoulders with kindred types from the “Dill Pickle,”
the “Green Mask,” the “Gray Cottage.” Free-lance propagandists
who belong to no group and claim no following, non-conformists,
dreamers, fakers, beggars, bootleggers, dope fiends--they are all
here.

Around the edges of the Square the curbstone orators gather their
audiences. Religion, politics, science, the economic struggle,
these are the principal themes of discussion in this outdoor forum.
Often there are three or four audiences gathered at the same time
in different parts of the park, each carrying on a different
discussion. One may be calling miserable sinners to repent, and the
other denouncing all religion as superstition. Opposing speakers
frequently follow each other, talking to the same audience. In this
aggregation of minds the most striking thing is the variety and
violence of the antipathies. There is, notwithstanding, a generous
tolerance. It is probably a tolerance growing out of the fact,
that, although everyone talks and argues, no one takes the other
seriously. It helps to pass the time and that is why folks come to
“Bughouse Square.”

To the hobo who thinks, even though he does not think well, the
lower North Side is a great source of comfort. On the North Side
he finds people to whom he can talk and to whom he is willing
to listen. Hobos do not generally go there to listen, however,
but burning with a message of which they are bound to unburden
themselves. They go to speak, perhaps to write. Many of them are
there to get away from the sordidness of life in other areas of
Hobohemia.


A “JUNGLE” ON THE LAKE FRONT

Grant Park, east of Michigan Avenue, is a loafing place for hobos
with time on their hands. They gather here from all parts of
Hobohemia to read the papers, to talk, and to kill time. For men
who have not had a bed it is a good place to sleep when the sun is
kind and the grass is warm. In the long summer evenings Grant
Park is a favorite gathering place for men who like to get together
to tell yarns and to frolic. It is a favorite rendezvous for the
boy tramps.

[Illustration: A JUNGLE CAMP--THE “BOS” HAVE HID FROM THE CAMERA]

[Illustration: SUMMER RESORTING BEHIND FIELD MUSEUM, CHICAGO]

The section of Grant Park facing the lake shore is no less popular.
Along the shore from the Field Museum northward to Randolph Street
the homeless men have access to the lake. They take advantage of
the unimproved condition of the park and make of the place, between
the railroad tracks and the lake, a retreat, a resort, a social
center. Here they wash their clothes, bathe, sew, mend shoes.

Behind the Field Museum, on the section of the park that is still
being used as a dump for rubbish, the hobos have established a
series of camps or “jungles.” Here, not more than five minutes from
the Loop, are numerous improvised shacks in which men live. Many
men visit these sections only for the day. To them it is a good
place to come to fish and they spend hours gazing at the water and
trying to keep the little fish from biting.


WHY MEN COME TO CHICAGO

The hobo has no social centers other than the “stem,” and the
“jungle.” He either spends his leisure in the “jungles” or in town.
The “jungle” ordinarily is a station on his way to town. Life
revolves for him around his contacts on the “stem,” and it is to
town he hies himself whenever free to do so.

Few casuals can give any reason for the attraction that the city
has for them. Few have ever considered it. The explanations they
give, when pressed for reasons, are more or less matter of fact
and center in their material interests. Other motives, motives of
which they are only half conscious, undoubtedly influence them.

The city is the labor exchange for the migratory worker and even
for the migratory non-worker who is often just as ambitious to
travel. When he is tired of a job, or when the old job is finished,
he goes to town to get another in some other part of the country.
The labor exchanges facilitate this turnover of seasonal labor.
They enable a man to leave the city “on the cushins.” This is the
lure that draws him to the city. Hobohemia brings the job-seeking
man and the man-seeking job together. Migrants have always known
that a larger variety of jobs and a better assortment of good
“shipments” were to be had in Chicago than elsewhere.

    Chicago is the greatest railway center in the United
    States. No one knows these facts better than the hobo.
    It is a fact that trains from all points of the compass
    are constantly entering and leaving the city over its 39
    different railways. According to the _Chicago City Manual_,
    there are 2,840 miles of steam railways within the city
    limits. The mileage of steam railroad track in Chicago is
    equal to the entire railroad mileage in Switzerland and
    Belgium, and is greater than the steam railroad mileage
    found in each of the kingdoms of Denmark, Holland, Norway,
    and Portugal. Twenty-five through package cars leave
    Chicago every day for 18,000 shipping points in 44 states.

The termination of the seasonal occupations brings men cityward.
They come here for shelter during the winter, and not only for
shelter but for inside winter work. This is the hobo’s only
alternative, provided he cannot go to California or to one of the
southern states. The dull routine of the inside job, which seemed
so unattractive in the springtime, looks better with the falling of
the temperature. We may add, also, that many of the men who are
attracted to the city in winter are not particularly interested in
work. There are, however, among the improvident tramp class, “wise
virgins” who save in the summer in order to enjoy the life of a
boarding-house during the winter.

The hobo often goes to town for medical attention. For the sick and
injured of the floating fraternity Chicago is a haven of refuge
because of the large number of opportunities found here for free
treatment. The county hospital, the dispensaries, and the medical
colleges are well known to these men. Many get well and go their
way, others get no farther than the hospital--and then the morgue.

A man whose income is limited to a few hundred dollars a year can
do more with it in the large city than in a small town. In no other
American city will a dollar go farther than in Chicago. It is not
uncommon to find men living in Hobohemia on less than a dollar a
day. Large numbers make possible cheap service, and cheap service
brings the men.


THE PROBLEM DEFINED IN TERMS OF NUMBERS

Not only the extent, but the nature of the problem of the homeless
man is revealed by a study of his numbers. In Chicago all estimates
are in substantial agreement that the population of Hobohemia never
falls below 30,000 in summer, doubles this figure in winter, and
has reached 75,000 and over in periods of unemployment.[2]

These numbers, while large, are only between 1 and 2½ per cent
of Chicago’s population of nearly 3,000,000. Homeless men,
however, are not distributed evenly throughout the city; they are
concentrated, segregated, as we have seen, in three contiguous
narrow areas close to the center of transportation and trade.

This segregation of tens of thousands of foot-loose, homeless,
and not to say hopeless men is the fact fundamental to an
understanding of the problem. Their concentration has created
an isolated cultural area--Hobohemia. Here characteristic
institutions have arisen--cheap hotels, lodging-houses, flops,
eating joints, outfitting shops, employment agencies, missions,
radical bookstores, welfare agencies, economic and political
institutions--to minister to the needs, physical and spiritual, of
the homeless man. This massing of detached and migratory men upon
a small area has created an environment in which gamblers, dope
venders, bootleggers, and pickpockets can live and thrive.

The mobility of the migratory worker complicates the problem of the
missions, police, and welfare agencies. The mission measures its
success not only in numbers of converts but in the numbers of men
fed and lodged. The police department, on the contrary, alarmed by
the influx of hobos and tramps in response to free meals and free
flops, has adopted a policy of severity and repression for the
protection of the community. Welfare agencies, opposing alike the
demoralizing results of indiscriminate feeding and lodging, and the
negative policy of the police, favor a program of organized effort
based upon an investigation of the needs of each individual case.


FOOTNOTES:

[2] Mrs. Solenberger’s figures of more than a decade ago put
the number of the various types of homeless men in this city at
40,000-60,000:

“No exact census of the total number of homeless men of various
types in the lodging-house districts of Chicago has been taken, but
40,000 is considered a conservative estimate by several careful
students of the question who are closely in touch with local
conditions. This number is somewhat increased at election times
and very greatly increased when word goes out, as it did during
the winter of 1907-8, that relief funds were being collected and
free lodgings and food would be furnished to the unemployed. In
December, January, February, and March of that winter all private
lodging-houses were filled to overflowing, and the Municipal
Lodging House, its annex, and two other houses which it operated
gave a total of 79,411 lodgings to homeless men as compared with
6,930 for the same months of the winter before, an increase of
72,481. The Health Department, which took charge of the municipal
lodging-houses and made a careful study of local conditions during
the winter of 1907-8, estimated the number of homeless men then
in Chicago to be probably not less than 60,000.”--_One Thousand
Homeless Men_, p. 9, n.

Nearly if not quite one-fifth of the 700 hotels in Chicago
cater to the migratory and casual worker. The 63 hotels visited
by investigators in this study had a total capacity for the
accommodation of 15,000 men. On the basis of these figures, it
seems safe to put the total capacity of the hotels in Hobohemian
areas at 25,000-30,000. A like number of men are probably provided
for in nearby boarding- and lodging-houses. Thousands of other
men sleep at the docks, in engine rooms, in vacant houses, in
flophouses, or in summer in the parks.

The returns of the 1920 United States census show that in the three
wards of the city in which Hobohemian areas are located there are
28,105 more male than female residents. This figure indicates
that the so-called “home guard” numbers about 30,000, the summer
population of Hobohemia.

The Jewish Bureau of Social Service estimates that the number of
homeless men in Chicago at any one time in the winter of 1921-22
was 120,000. This figure, which seems high when compared with
estimates arrived at by other methods of calculation, assumes that
the proportion of homeless men for the city is the same as that for
the Jewish community.




CHAPTER II

THE JUNGLES: THE HOMELESS MAN ABROAD


In the city, under ordinary circumstances, the homeless man gathers
with his kind. Even so he is very much alone and his contacts with
his fellows are relatively formal and distant.

City life is interesting but full of danger. Even in a world where
the conditions of life are so elementary, prudence dictates a
certain amount of reserve and hence formality and convention in
the relations of men. The flophouse and the cheap hotel compel
promiscuity, but do not encourage intimacy or neighborliness. On
the outskirts of cities, however, the homeless men have established
social centers that they call “jungles,” places where the hobos
congregate to pass their leisure time outside the urban centers.
The jungle is to the tramp what the camp ground is to the vagabond
who travels by auto. It has for the hobo, perhaps, greater
significance, since it becomes a necessary part of his daily life.
The evening camp fire for the tourist, on the contrary, is a
novelty merely, an experience but not a necessity.


LOCATION AND TYPES OF JUNGLES

Jungles are usually located in close proximity to a railroad
division point, where the trains are made up or where trains stop
to change crews and engines. Sometimes they are located near a
“tank town,” where occasional stops are made for water or fuel.
Not infrequently they are near the intersection of railroad lines.
In the South, and on the West Coast, jungles are often located
along the highways. This is due to the fact that many men go South
in winter not to work but to escape the rigors of the northern
climate. The railroad for the time being has no attraction for them
and they are content to stroll abroad, seeing the country. In the
West, where men frequently carry bedding and cooking equipment,
they can camp anywhere. It is easier for them, therefore, to leave
the railroad and venture along the highways.

Accessibility to a railroad is only one of the requirements of a
good jungle. It should be located in a dry and shady place that
permits sleeping on the ground. There should be plenty of water for
cooking and bathing and wood enough to keep the pot boiling. If
there is a general store near by where bread, meat, and vegetables
may be had, so much the better. For those who have no money, but
enough courage to “bum lumps,” it is well that the jungles be not
too far from a town, though far enough to escape the attention of
the natives and officials, the town “clowns.”

Jungle camps may be divided into two classes--the temporary and the
permanent, or continuous. Temporary jungles are merely stop-over or
relay stations inhabited intermittently by the men of the road. Men
temporarily stranded in a town usually seek a secluded spot at the
edge of a village, not too far from the railroad, where they may
while away the time without being molested. Men on the road look
for places where other men preceding them have camped. There they
are likely to find pots and kettles in which to cook food or wash
clothes. At points where trains stop frequently, making it possible
for men to get away at any time, the population of a temporary
jungle is likely to be larger and more permanent.

The continuous or permanent jungles are seldom deserted, at
least in summer. There is usually someone there to keep the fire
burning and usually there are men or boys occupied at various
tasks--cooking, washing or boiling clothes, shaving, sewing,
bathing, and reading.

Women are often found in the areas of the cities where the homeless
men congregate but not in the jungles. Here is an institution where
the hobo is his own housewife. He not only cooks his own food, but
has even invented dishes that are peculiar to jungle life. Chief
among these is “mulligan” stew. “Mulligan,” or “combination,” is a
“throw together” of vegetables and meat. There are certain ideal
mixtures of vegetables and meat, but the tramp makes “mulligan”
from anything that is at hand. Onions, potatoes, and beef are the
prime essentials. Some men become adept at frying and roasting over
camp fires.

The hobo who lives in the jungles has proved that he can become
domesticated without the aid of women. He has established the habit
of keeping his clothes and person clean. It is not difficult to
select from a group of transients the men who have just come from
the jungles. Their clothes will be clean and even bear evidence of
jungle sewing. Overalls that have seen service will be bleached
almost white from numerous washings. The hobo learns here the
housewife’s art of keeping pots clean and the camp in order. The
man who cannot, or will not, learn these few elementary principles
of housekeeping is likely to fare ill in the jungle.

If it is a warm day some men will be sleeping. They may have
been riding trains all night or have found the night too cold
for sleep. A daily paper from an adjoining town may be going the
rounds. There may be newspapers from different cities brought in by
men traveling different directions. Travelers meeting this way have
much of common interest to talk about and conversation is enlivened
with discussions of questions of concern to “bos.” The jungle is
always astir with life and movement, and the hobo enters into this
life as he does no other. Here he turns his back on the world and
faces his fellows, and is at ease.

Absolute democracy reigns in the jungle. The color line has been
drawn in some camps, but it is the general custom, and especially
in the North, for Negroes, Mexicans, and whites to share the same
jungle. The jungle is the melting pot of trampdom.

The average man of the road has had a variety of experience and not
a little adventure. In the jungles there is always an audience for
anyone who wants to talk, whether of his thoughts, his experiences,
or his observations. There is plenty of opportunity to tell
stories. The art of telling a story is diligently cultivated by the
“bos” in the assemblies about the fire. This vagabond existence
tends to enrich the personality and long practice has developed
in some of these men an art of personal narrative that has
greatly declined elsewhere. Many of them develop into fascinating
_raconteurs_ in the literal as well as the literary sense of the
term. Talk in the jungle is of the open road and the day to come,
and in that there is sufficient matter to occupy them.

Jungle populations are ever changing. Every hour new faces appear
to take the place of those that have passed on. They come and go
without ceremony, with scarcely a greeting or “fare-you-well.”
Every new member is of interest for the news he brings or the
rumors that he spreads. Each is interested in the other so far as
he has something to tell about the road over which he has come, the
work conditions, the behavior of the police, or other significant
details. But with all the discussion there is seldom any effort to
discuss personal relations and connections. Here is one place where
every man’s past is his own secret.

Only in the case of very young boys or sick men and sometimes old
men is there any effort to learn something of the individual’s
past. Men will brush elbows in the jungles for days and even weeks
without ever learning one another’s names. They live closed lives
and grant others the same privilege.


THE LAWS OF THE JUNGLE

In every permanent camp there is likely to be a permanent group
that makes the camp its headquarters. Sometimes these groups are
able to take possession and exploit the transient guests. The
I.W.W. has at times been able to exclude everyone who did not carry
the red card of that organization. As a rule, however, the jungle
is extremely hospitable and democratic.

The freedom of the jungles is, however, limited by a code of
etiquette. Jungle laws are unwritten, but strictly adhered to. The
breaking of these rules, if intentional, leads to expulsion, forced
labor, or physical punishment.

    Jungle crimes include (1) making fire by night in jungles
    subject to raids; (2) “hi-jacking,” or robbing men at night
    when sleeping in the jungles; (3) “buzzing,” or making
    the jungle a permanent hangout for jungle “buzzards”
    who subsist on the leavings of meals; (4) wasting food
    or destroying it after eating is a serious crime; (5)
    leaving pots and other utensils dirty after using; (6)
    cooking without first hustling fuel; (7) destroying jungle
    equipment. In addition to these fixed offenses are other
    crimes which are dealt with as they arise. Men are supposed
    to use cooking cans for cooking only, “boiling up” cans for
    washing clothing, coffee cans to cook coffee, etc. After
    using, guests are expected to clean utensils, dry them, and
    leave them turned bottom side up so that they will not fill
    with rainwater and rust. They are expected to keep the camp
    clean. To enforce such common-sense rules, self-appointed
    committees come into existence.[3]

Exclusive camps are usually the result of the efforts of the older
residents to enforce discipline. Most “jungle buzzards,” men who
linger in the jungles from season to season, take an interest
in the running of things. For the most part they are parasitic,
begging food from others, but they are generally on the alert to
keep the place clean and orderly.

The following description of a day in the jungles was written
by a migratory worker, a man who knows the life from years of
experience. His narrative presents a faithful picture of an average
day in an average jungle.


A DAY IN THE JUNGLES

    1.[4] This jungle is on the edge of a strip of timber. A
    stream fed from a spring runs into the lake near by. The
    empty box cars on the railroad siding close by offer
    protection against rain and a place to sleep. Half a mile
    away is the junction of two railroads where all trains
    stop, and a mile and a half further on is a small town.

    At one o’clock in the morning a few men step off a freight
    train. One speaks up: “Does anyone know if there is a
    jungle in this place?” “Yes,” someone answers, “The jungle
    is up in that direction,” pointing towards a woods, “but
    what’s the use in going over there now? You can’t build a
    fire at this time of night. I am going to hunt up a box car
    for a flop.”

    After a moment of silence someone else asks, “Any town
    close by?” “Yes, there it is,” replies another, pointing
    to some lights showing in the distance. The men form
    groups according to acquaintance and talk in a low tone.
    “Come on, let us hunt up a place to flop till daylight.”
    The different groups start off. One starts out for the
    town, one goes towards the box cars, and one makes for the
    jungles. I was with the group bound for the jungles.

    A hundred feet from the railroad right-of-way under the
    darkness of big trees we see three or four dying camp
    fires. Around one fire we can see the shadows of men. Some
    are sitting on the butts of logs, smoking or dozing; others
    are stretched out on the ground sound asleep.

    The new arrivals walk up to the fire, look over the bunch
    to find, perhaps, some old acquaintances. Then some of
    us find seats or lie down; others, with as little noise
    as possible, hunt up cans which they fill with water and
    place over the glowing coals. The men take ground coffee
    from packages in their pockets and pour it into boiling
    water. The feed is open to everybody. Bread and sausage
    are brought out; even sugar is passed around as long as it
    lasts. The men eat in silence. Each one takes the utensils
    he used and walks to the creek to wash them. Nearly all of
    the men then lie down, but some leave. Nobody asks anyone
    about himself and nobody says “hello” or “goodbye.”

    Daylight comes. The breaking of sticks for firewood is
    heard. Fires are started, cooking utensils are chosen. The
    law of the jungle is that no one can call a vessel his
    except at the time he uses it. Packages and receptacles are
    opened revealing food of all kinds. Eating commences. If
    any man with more than enough for himself sees someone else
    not eating, it is etiquette to offer to share with his
    neighbor. If the other man accepts the offer, he thereby
    takes upon himself the responsibility of cleaning the
    dishes.

    At any time men will be seen leaving the jungles to hustle
    food, or to get wood, or to catch trains. Anytime is eating
    time in the jungles and someone is always bringing in
    “chuck” that he has bought or “bummed.” Talking goes on as
    long as the daylight lasts. Heated arguments often develop.
    Papers and pamphlets are distributed, union cards are taken
    out; business meetings are held to decide policies and
    actions, how to get the next meal or how to win the battle
    between labor and capital.

    About ten o’clock in the morning two townsmen displaying
    stars come into the jungle. One of them tells the men that
    they will have to clean out because people are kicking. A
    holdup has been committed in town the night before and they
    intend to prevent any more from being committed, “So you
    fellers have to leave.”

    One man in the jungles speaks up and tells the officers
    that we are not holdup men, that we are getting ourselves
    something to eat, and that we have got to have some place
    to do that. “We have paid for everything. What would you do
    if you was in our place; go into town and get pulled and
    let the town feed us?”

    The officer looks nonplussed, but curtly replies, “Well,
    I am going by orders.” After that he walks away. The
    timid men leave the jungle. The others reply by roundly
    cursing indiscriminately all their enemies. They are town
    clowns, sky pilots, Bible ranters, bulls, politicians, home
    guards, hicks, stool pigeons, systems, scissor bills, and
    capitalists. Incidentally they advocate strikes, rebellion,
    mass action, complete revolution of the political system,
    abolishment of the wage system.

    It is close to twelve o’clock. Fires are replenished, cans,
    pots and pans are put into service. Plans are being made
    in anticipation of a coming raid by the police. At two
    o’clock, someone suggests a song. After a fiery song of
    the class struggle, a speech follows advising the men to
    organize.

    By three o’clock only about fifteen or twenty are left in
    the jungle. The officer followed by townsmen armed with
    guns return. Some of the hobos retreat into the woods.
    Those remaining are ordered to hold up their hands with
    “You damn bums” added to the command. Some comply, others
    refuse. One even has the courage to shout, “Go ahead and
    shoot, you damn cowards.” This starts a general shooting
    into every pot, pan and can in sight. The men scatter.

    After the invaders leave, an inventory is immediately made
    to assess the damage. Since the utensils in best condition
    had been hidden in the brush, no serious loss to the jungle
    has resulted.

    By four o’clock the story of the raid has traveled and men
    come in from all directions. The decision of the majority
    is to remain in the jungle over night. Food is brought in
    and preparations for supper begin. The men are doubling up
    to cook together. Those belonging to certain unions have
    as many as eight or ten in a bunch. There are from thirty
    to forty angry men in camp by now and more are coming in.
    There is some talk of revenge.

    By six o’clock supper is well under way. Several fires are
    burning. Containers of every description are used to cook
    in; broken shovels and tie plates are used to fry on, empty
    tobacco tins are used as cups, and tomato cans serve as fry
    pans, soup kettles and soap dishes. Potatoes are roasted on
    the coals, wires are bent upon which to broil meat. All are
    still talking excitedly of the clash with the police.

    While some of the men are busily engaged in cooking, others
    are sewing and mending their clothes or shoes, and still
    others are shaving. Now and then as at breakfast someone
    will shout, asking if anybody wants some spuds or a piece
    of punk or a piece of “gut” (sausage); and usually there
    is an affirmative answer. After supper, pans and cans are
    cleaned out, the paper is read and passes the rounds.
    Already it is growing dark, and the hunt begins for dry
    sleeping places.

    Suddenly a commotion is started; a man is roughly rushed
    into the open. He is a hi-jack caught in the act of robbing
    a fellow who was sleeping, a greater crime in the jungle
    than an open hold up. Cries of “Burn the ----” and “Let us
    hang him!” are heard from all sides. A council is hurriedly
    called, a chairman is selected, motions are made with
    amendments and substitutes. After a short discussion a vote
    is taken to give him a whipping. The man is tied to a tree
    facing toward it. His back is bared, and men are called
    for to apply punishment. No one steps forward; everybody
    declines to apply the strap or stick.

    Another council is called but before they get started a
    young fellow has declared his willingness to fight the
    hi-jack to a finish because he knew him and didn’t like him
    anyway. The proposition is accepted. The hi-jack is more
    than ten pounds heavier than the challenger; but whether
    from fear or not, for he knows that the challenger has the
    crowd back of him to a man, the hi-jack is slow to start.
    Perhaps he feels that the crowd will give him a beating
    whether he wins or not. He soon loosens up but he does
    not show the goods. The “bo” is more than a match for him
    but the hi-jack does not give up easily. He displays some
    courage but the “bo” fights like a madman and strikes the
    hi-jack blow after blow. The fight lasts more than ten
    minutes before the hi-jack is completely knocked out.

    After he gets to his feet he is given a chance to wash his
    face and stick paper on the cuts; then he is “frisked,”
    that is, ordered to donate all but one dollar to the
    jungle. Then he is sent out of camp with orders not to show
    up in any of the diggings along the line for it would be
    murder if anyone should spot him.

    By eleven o’clock the excitement is over. Different men
    announce that they were headed for so and so and that the
    freight starts at such a time. To this someone replies that
    he is going that way too so they start off together. Others
    walk back among the trees to the places where they have
    prepared to sleep. Others who have insufficient clothes
    to stand the night chill bunch up around the glowing camp
    fires. Soon everything is quiet except for an occasional
    sound out of the darkness of men mumbling in conversation.
    Occasionally the sound of groans and snores or sighs, or
    curses are heard. These betray the dreams of men living
    like hunted animals.

    I look at my watch and note that it is near midnight and
    that all is over for the night, so I curl up on some papers
    beside a bed of coals.[5]


THE MELTING POT OF TRAMPDOM

The part played by the jungles as an agency of discipline for the
men of the road cannot be overestimated. Here hobo tradition and
law are formulated and transmitted. It is the nursery of tramp
lore. Here the fledgling learns to behave like an old-timer. In
the jungles the slang of the road and the cant of the tramp class
is coined and circulated. It may originate elsewhere but here it
gets recognition. The stories and songs current among the men of
the road, the sentiments, the attitudes, and the philosophy of the
migratory laborer are all given due airing. In short, every idea
and ideal that finds lodgment in the tramp’s fancy may be expressed
here in the wayside forum where anyone who thinks may speak,
whether he be a jester or a sage.

Suspicion and hostility are the universal attitudes of the town or
small city to the hobo and the tramp. Accordingly, the so-called
“floater” custom of passing vagrants on to other communities is
widespread.[6] The net effect of this policy is to intensify
the anti-social attitude of the homeless man and to release and
accentuate criminal tendencies. The small town is helpless to cope
with the situation. As things are, its action perhaps cannot be
different. Agriculture, as it becomes organized upon a capitalistic
basis, is increasingly dependent upon seasonal labor, in harvesting
crops for example. The report of the Commission on Industrial
Relations states:

    The attempts to regulate movements of migratory workers
    by local organizations have, without exception, proved
    failures. This must necessarily be true no matter how well
    planned or well managed such local organizations may be.
    The problem cannot be handled except on a national scale
    and by methods and machinery which are proportioned to the
    enormous size and complexity of the problem.[7]


FOOTNOTES:

[3] It is interesting here to note that there is a striking
parallel between the rules of the jungles and the rules of cow
camps and other camps of the hills. It is the custom of the cow men
of the west to maintain camps in the hills which are stocked with
provisions and equipped with utensils and furnishings. These camps
are usually left open and anyone who passes is welcome to spend the
night, provided he puts the place in order when he leaves.

[4] The documents from which extracts have been taken are numbered
consecutively in the text. For complete list of documents used in
each chapter see pp. 281-88.

[5] Written by A. W. Dragstedt, secretary in 1922 of the “Hobo
College” of Chicago.

[6] For a discussion of the practice of “floating” with reference
to the treatment of misdemeanants, see Stuart A. Queen, _The
Passing of the County Jail_.

[7] _Final Report_, p. 158.




CHAPTER III

THE LODGING-HOUSE: THE HOMELESS MAN AT HOME


Hobohemia is a lodging-house area. The accommodations it offers the
homeless man range from a bed in a single room for fifty cents to
location on the floor of an empty loft for a dime. Lodging-house
keepers take thin profits but they serve large numbers. There are
usually more men than there are beds, particularly in winter.
An estimate indicates that all hotels are full from December to
May. During the rest of the year they are likely to be filled to
two-thirds of their capacity.

Chicago has known three types of cheap hotels: the so-called
“barrel-house,” the welfare institution, and the business
enterprise. The first, the barrel-house, was a rooming-house,
saloon, and house of prostitution, all in one. Men with money
usually spent it in the barrel-houses. There they found warmth and
companionship. They would join the circle at the bar, buy drinks
for the crowd, and have a good time. Men who were afraid of being
robbed placed their money with the bartender and charged against it
the drinks purchased. As soon as they were overcome by drink they
would be taken upstairs to bed. The following day the program would
be repeated. A three- or four-hundred-dollar stake at this rate
usually lasted a week. Not infrequently the barrel-house added to
its other attractions the opportunity for gambling.

The barrel-house is a thing of the past. Its place has been taken
in part by hotels like the Workingmen’s Palace; the Reliance; the
New Century, owned and operated by the Salvation Army; the Rufus
F. Dawes, owned and maintained by General C. G. Dawes; the Popular
Hotel, owned and maintained by the Chicago Christian Industrial
League. In places of this sort, charges are small, usually not
enough to cover operating expenses.

The Rufus F. Dawes and the Workingmen’s Palace are both large,
fire-proof structures, clean and modern, constructed originally
for other purposes. Like all paternalistic, quasi-charitable
institutions, however, they are not popular, although the charges
for a room and bed are hardly sufficient to cover the operating
expenses. This is the second type of lodging-house.

The pioneers in the cheap hotel business in Chicago operated on
a commercial basis were Harvey and McGuire, the founders of the
well-known Harvey-McGuire hotel system. Harvey, an evangelist,
in his work with the “down-and-outs” had learned the evils of
barrel-houses. He went into a partnership with McGuire, a man
acquainted with the rough side of life. After a number of years
the Harvey-McGuire system went out of existence. McGuire went
into the hotel business for himself and now owns a number of
cheap lodging-houses. Harvey sold his interests to his nephew and
went back to evangelistic work. The nephew went into partnership
with Mr. Dammarell. There are eight hotels in the present
Harvey-Dammarell system with a combined capacity for lodging 3,000
men. The Ideal opened in 1884, probably the oldest men’s hotel in
the city, originally known as the Collonade, at 509 West Madison
Street, is an example of the type. The Mohawk, the most modern
men’s hotel, is also the property of the Harvey-Dammarell system.

The men who run these hotels do not claim to be philanthropists.
Mr. Harvey has defined the situation. He says:

    We are in the hotel business to make a living. We give the
    men the best service they can pay for. We give nothing away
    and we ask nothing. Consequently, we do not lay ourselves
    open to criticism. We insist on order and sobriety and
    we usually get it. We hold that the men have a right to
    criticize us and come to us if they are not satisfied with
    the service we give. That is business. The man who pays
    seventy-five cents for a bed has a right to seventy-five
    cents’ worth of service. If a man can only pay twenty-five
    cents for a bed he is entitled to all that he pays for and
    is entitled to kick if he doesn’t get it.

Different types of hotels attract different types of men. The
better class of workingmen who patronize the Mohawk, where the
prices range from forty to seventy cents, wear collars and creased
trousers. The hotel provides stationery and desks. Hotels where the
prices range from twenty-five cents to forty cents are patronized
by a shabbier group of men. Few of them are shaven. Some of them
read, but most of them sit alone with their thoughts. In some
second-class places a man is employed to go the rounds and arouse
the sleepers.

In the twenty-five-cent hotels, the patrons not only are content
to sit unshaven, but they are often dirty. Many of them have the
faces of beaten men; many of them are cripples and old men. The
exceptions are the Popular and the Rufus F. Dawes, where the price
is twenty cents or less to be sure, but the guests are more select.
Since these places are semi-charitable, they can force certain
requirements upon their patrons.

The term “room” is a misnomer when applied to a sleeping apartment
in a cheap hotel. These rooms have been aptly termed “cubicles,”
and among the patrons they are known as “cages.” A cubicle is
usually from 6 to 8 feet in width and from 8 to 12 feet in length.
The thin walls, composed of steel or matched lumber, are usually
about 8 feet in height. A wire netting over the top admits air
and prevents the guests climbing from one cubicle to another.
The furnishings are simple; sometimes only a bed, sometimes a
bed and a chair, and in more expensive places a stand. They are
not constructed either for comfort or convenience; lighting and
ventilation are usually bad. But they are all they were intended to
be: places for men to sleep with a limited degree of privacy.

A canvass of the Hobohemian hotels has been made with a view to
learning the approximate mobility of the hotel population. Few
of these hotels are prepared to make any but general statements,
though some of them have made an effort to get the facts. The
consensus of opinion of hotel clerks is that the greatest turnover
is in the cheapest hotels. Better-class places like the Acme, the
Ironsides, and the Workingmen’s Palace have a large proportion of
permanent guests. The permanent guests, those who remain two or
three months or more, range from a third to a half of the total
number of roomers. Many of the older hotels have permanent patrons
who are seasonal but regular. Others never leave the city.


THE “FLOPHOUSE”

“Flophouses” are nearly all alike. Guests sleep on the floor or in
bare, wooden bunks. The only privilege they buy is the privilege
to lie down somewhere in a warm room.

    2. “Hogan’s Flop” is known from coast to coast among hobos.
    A tramp who has been in Chicago long enough to learn of
    Lynch’s place, the Workingmen’s Palace, Hinky Dink’s, or to
    eat doughnuts in missions has heard of Hogan’s.

    The first “Hogan’s Flop” was located on South State Street.
    Later it moved to the West Side and for some time was on
    Meridian Street. Since it left Meridian Street it has been
    located in several places. The original Hogan, who was a
    Spanish-American War veteran, has passed to his reward.
    Only his name remains. Every winter, however, someone
    starts a “flop” and it invariably inherits the name and
    fame of Hogan. Hogan is now a myth, a sort of eponymous
    hero. A tramp discussing this matter said: “Hogan may be
    dead but the bugs that were in business with him are still
    on the job. They follow this joint wherever it goes. You
    know when they moved from Meridian Street it wasn’t three
    days before the bugs got the new address and followed us.”

The following account is adapted from a description of a night
spent in “Hogan’s Flop”:

    3. I spent the evening at the Bible Rescue Mission where
    sincere folks were pleading with men of the road to come
    forward and make things right with the Master. Two came
    forward and it was a time of rejoicing. They prayed and
    sang and fed us rolls and coffee, and to those who had no
    bed for the night they gave tickets to “Hogan’s.” They
    offered me a ticket but I thanked them and assured them
    that I still had a little money.

    You have to know where “Hogan’s” is to find it. In the
    spring of 1922, it occupied the second and third floors of
    a building at 16 South Desplaines Street. A narrow, shaky
    stairs, a squeaky door, a feebly lighted entrance, a night
    clerk who demands a dime and you are within. You may take
    your choice of sleeping on this floor or go on up to the
    third. There is no difference in the price. I chose the
    second floor. It was less crowded. The fire, from a large
    heater in the center of the room, was warmer.

    The men around the stove had evidently been exposed to
    the elements. One was drying his shoes for it had rained
    all day. Another was drying his shirt. Two were engaged
    in listless conversation. Others were silent. The air was
    stuffy, the light dim. I walked around the room looking
    for a place to lie down. Dozens of men were sleeping on
    the floor with their heads to the wall. Some were lying on
    paper, others on the bare floor. Some were partly covered
    by their overcoats; some had no overcoats. It is an art
    to curl up under an overcoat. One man of fifty years or
    more had removed his shirt and trousers and was using the
    latter for a pillow. He had tied his shoes to his trousers
    which is evidence that he knew “flop” house ethics. When
    men sleep in box cars they sometimes use their shoes for
    pillows but this is not necessary in “Hogan’s.” A planking
    around the walls affords a resting place for weary heads.

    A number of the faces here I had seen a great many times
    on the “stem.” Two were old men in their seventies who had
    been in the city several years and were mendicants most
    of the time. There was a one-legged man whom I had seen
    chumming with another one-legged man on the streets. Both
    peddled lead pencils and shoestrings. On the only cot on
    the floor, two young fellows were lying. They were sleeping
    with their heads at opposite ends of the narrow bed and
    their bodies were entangled to prevent their falling off.

    I found a vacant place on the floor where I could have
    about two feet between myself and my nearest neighbor so
    I spread my papers and lay down. I had more paper than I
    needed so I gave half to another man who was just circling
    about for a place to go to bed. I asked the man nearest
    me if the bugs bothered much. He answered in the richest
    of Irish brogues that Hogan’s bugs were sure efficient.
    Another man chimed in. He said they were better organized
    than the German army. How well organized they were I
    can’t say but I was not long in learning that they were
    enterprising.

    Two men near me engaged in a discussion about the economic
    conference at Genoa. One man had very positive, orderly
    ideas of how things should go. The other interrupted
    occasionally only to agree. Someone wanted to know why he
    didn’t hire a hall. Then there was silence, except for
    snores. I never heard such a variety of snores but none
    of them seemed to suggest peaceful slumbers or pleasant
    dreaming. Once the snores were broken into by some man
    bawling out, “Hey, you; quit spittin’ over this way; you’re
    gettin’ it on my paper.” “Well, dammit; How much room do
    you want to take up?” His neighbor retorted, “It’s none of
    your ---- business how much room I take. You lay off’n that
    spittin’, see.”

    More snores. A man got up, stretched, rubbed his legs, came
    to the center of the room to the stove. More snores. Some
    men came in, paid their dimes and looked for an opening on
    the floor. A man ran to the toilet to vomit. A wag called
    to him to “heave it up.”

    After an hour or so I felt something on my hand. I crushed
    it. There were others to be seen on the white papers. I
    lay down to try to sleep again. A second attack brought me
    suddenly to my feet. I lay down resolved a third time not
    to be disturbed. My companions seemed to be suffering more
    from the hard floor than anything else; and the floor was
    hard. I turned my thoughts to the hardness of the floor at
    “Hogan’s.”

    How long I dozed I can’t say but I awoke marveling at the
    endurance of the man of the road. While I pondered thus a
    man jumped to his feet and hastened out. He was cursing
    the bugs and saying that he knew an engine room that had
    this “place beat all hollow.” I felt better. Someone else
    had weakened first. I got up and started home. It was
    two-thirty.


RESTAURANTS AND LUNCHROOMS

Hobohemian restaurants serve meals for a half or a third of the
prices current in the Loop. In some of these lunchrooms the charges
are so low that one marvels. However, the food is coarse and poor
and the service rough and ready.

The homeless man is as casual in his eating as he is in his work.
He usually gives all the restaurants a trial. If he has any money
when meal time comes he generally does a little “window shopping.”
He meanders up and down the street reading the bills of fare in the
windows. The Hobohemian restaurants know this and accordingly use
window displays to attract the roaming patron. Food is placed in
the windows, cooking is done within sight of the street, but the
chief means of attraction are the menus chalked on the windows.
The whole window is sometimes lettered up with special entrées of
the day. Some of these bills of fare are interesting.

Gus’s place on South Halsted Street near the Academy Theater, July
28, 1922, displayed the following:

  Pig’s Snouts and Cabbage or Kraut      15c
  Corn Beef Hash                         10c
  Hamburger Roast                        10c
  Liver and Onions                       15c
  Hungarian Goulash                      20c
  Pig’s Shank and Cabbage                15c
  Spare Ribs and Cabbage                 20c
  Pig’s Feet and Potato Salad            15c
  Beef Stew and Kraut                    15c
  Sausage and Mashed Potatoes            15c
  Roast Beef                             20c
  Roast Pork                             25c
  T-Bone Steak                           30c

The same day the James Restaurant on Madison Street near Desplaines
advertised the following under the caption, “A Full Meal for Ten
Cents”:

  Veal Loaf                              10c
  Sardines and Potato Salad              10c
  Hamburger and One Egg                  10c
  Baked Beans                            10c
  Liver and Onions                       10c
  Corn Beef Plain                        10c
  Macaroni Italian                       10c
  Three Eggs any Style                   15c
  Kidney Stew                            10c
  Sausage and Mashed Potatoes            10c
  Brown Hash and One Egg                 10c
  Liver and Brown Gravy                  10c
  Salt Pork Plain                        10c
  Salmon and Potato Salad                10c
  Corn Flakes and Milk                    5c
  Four Eggs any Style                    20c

One eating-house on West Madison Street is “The Home Restaurant,
Meals Fifteen Cents and Up.” This is a popular appeal. Restaurants
frequently advertise “Home Cooking,” “Home Made Bread,” “Home Made
Coffee,” “Doughnuts Like Mother Used to Make.”

[Illustration: A DINING-ROOM ON THE “MAIN STEM”]

[Illustration: EMPLOYMENT BUREAUS OFFER OPPORTUNITY FOR TRAVEL]

At meal time, especially at noon, scores of men flock into these
eating-houses. The men, a noisy and turbulent crowd, call out their
orders, which are shouted by the waiters to the cooks who set out
without ceremony the desired dishes. Four or five waiters are able
to attend to the wants of a hundred or more men during the course
of an hour. The waiters work like madmen during the rush hours,
speeding in with orders, out with dirty dishes. During the course
of this hour a waiter becomes literally plastered with splashes of
coffee, gravy, and soup. The uncleanliness is revolting and the
waiters are no less shocking than the cooks and dishwashers. In the
kitchens uncleanliness reaches its limit.

But what is the opinion of the patron? They know that the hamburger
is generally mixed with bread and potatoes, that the bread is
usually stale, that the milk is frequently sour. There are few who
do not abhor the odors of the cheap restaurant, but a steady patron
reasons thus: “I don’t allow myself to see things, and as long as
the eyes don’t see the heart grieves not.”


OUTFITTING STORES AND CLOTHING EXCHANGES

The hobo seldom dresses up. If he does it is evidence that he
is making an effort to get out of his class. When he does buy
clothing, either rough clothing or a good “front,” he finds his
way to places where new clothes are on sale at astonishingly low
prices. The seasonal laborer’s outfitters handle a very cheap grade
of goods. Much of it is out of date and either shopworn or soiled.
Cheap clothing stores are not peculiar to Hobohemia, but here they
cater to the wants of the homeless man.

Clothing exchanges, which is a polite term for second-hand clothing
stores, are numerous in Hobohemia. There are many of them along
North Clark Street and west of Clark on Chicago Avenue. These
establishments make a specialty of buying slightly worn clothing,
sample suits and overcoats from broken lots, which they sell at
remarkably low prices.

Second-hand clothing stores are not entirely monopolized by the
hobo trade, but the veteran hobo knows of their existence and he
knows how to drive a bargain.

The cobbler who deals in shoes, both second-hand and new, as a
sideline, gets his share of the Hobohemian trade. Coming off
the road with a roll, the hobo is likely to invest in a whole
outfit--shoes, suit, and overcoat--only to sell them again in a few
days when he is broke. The second-hand dealer meets him both ways,
coming and going.


PAWN SHOPS

Pawn shops are not typical of Hobohemia. They are usually located
in that region just outside the limits of the lodging-houses, a
sort of border land between respectability and the down-and-outs.
Not that the hobo is unwilling, when he is broke, to put anything
valuable he happens to have in “hock,” but usually he does not
happen to have anything valuable. Still there are men who make a
practice of carrying a watch or a ring upon which, in case of need,
they can raise a few dollars.

Pawn shops are, to a limited extent, clothing exchanges. They are
places where the hobo does much of his buying and selling of tools,
fire arms, leather goods, jewelry, and like articles of that sort.


MOVIES AND BURLESQUES

Commercialized entertainment has had difficulty in getting a
foothold in Hobohemia. The movie has firmly established itself on
the border land, where it may be patronized by both the transient
and the resident population. The movies put the admission fee at
ten cents. As a matter of fact, there is one on South Halsted
Street which charges only a nickel. The pictures shown in these
houses have usually passed from the first-class theaters through
the various grades of cheaper houses until finally they arrive
here much out of date, badly scarred, and so scratched that they
irritate the eyes.

Vaudeville and burlesque have become fully established on the South
Side. Certain of these theaters cater to “men only.” Advertisements
of “classy girls,” “bathing beauties,” or “fancy dancing” have a
strange attraction for the homeless and lonely men.

Many men in the Hobohemian population do not patronize either the
movie or the burlesque. Those who do are sometimes merely looking
for an opportunity to sit down in quiet for an hour. Some theaters,
in recognition of this fact, extend an invitation to the audience
to “Stay as Long as You Like.” This draws a great many men,
especially in cold weather.


BARBER COLLEGES AND BARBERS

Chicago has several barber colleges in close proximity to the
“stem.” Four of them are located on West Madison Street and most
of them are so situated that they can attract men who are willing
to submit to the inexperienced efforts of students. Students must
have practice, and here are men, who as they themselves say, can
stand it.

The cheap rooming-houses do not always offer facilities for
shaving, so they are willing to sacrifice themselves in the
interest of education and art. If they are fortunate they may be
served by a Senior, but they always are in danger of falling into
the hands of a Freshman. Hair cuts cost ten or fifteen cents. This
is governed by the law of supply and demand. The colleges must have
patrons to keep the students busy. The lady barber flourishes in
Hobohemia. The hobo, at least, seems to have no prejudice against a
razor being wielded by feminine hands.


BOOKSTORES

Hobohemia has its bookstores where new and second-hand books are
sold. The “Hobo Bookstore,” sometimes called the “Proletariat,”
located at 1237 West Madison Street, is the best known. This
place makes a specialty of periodicals of a radical nature which
are extensively read by the “bos.” A large line of books on many
subjects are sold, but they are chiefly the paper-bound volumes
that the transient can afford. The “Radical Book Shop,” located on
North Clark Street, is popular among the intellectuals who pass
their time in “Bughouse Square.”


SALOONS AND SOFT DRINK STANDS

The saloon still lives in Hobohemia, though with waning prestige.
The five-cent schooner and the free lunch of pre-war days have
passed, but the saloons are far from being dead. One can still get
a “kick” out of stuff that is sold across the bar, but the crowds
do not gather as before prohibition. Formerly, men who got drunk
were kept inside, today they are hustled outside or at least kept
out of sight. As the saloon has lost its prestige, the bootlegger
has gained, and the “drunks” for which he is responsible parade the
streets or litter the alleys.

Fruit and soft drink stands and ice-cream cone peddlers are in
evidence since prohibition. Enthusiastic and persistent bootblacks
swarm in the streets and Gypsy fortune-tellers who hail every
passer-by for the privilege of “reading” his mind, and, perhaps, in
order to turn a trick at his expense.


THE HOUSING PROBLEM

Standards of living are low in Hobohemia. Flops are unwholesome and
unsanitary. Efforts have been made to improve these conditions, but
they have not been wholly successful. The Salvation Army and the
Dawes hotels have improved the lodging-houses. But the municipal
free lodging-house has been opposed by the police on the ground
that it was already too popular among casual and migratory workers.
The same may be said of any other effort to deal with the problem
from the point of view of philanthropy.

The only other alternative would seem to be to encourage the
migratory workers to organize to help themselves. This is difficult
but not impossible, but the history of these efforts is another
chapter in the story of Hobohemia.




CHAPTER IV

“GETTING BY” IN HOBOHEMIA


A man who is conservative can live in Hobohemia on a dollar a day.
If he is not too fastidious he can live for sixty cents, including
a bed every night. Sleeping in a ten-cent “flop” and sticking to
coffee and rolls, he can get along for fifty cents. Old men who do
not move around much will live a long time on “coffee-an’,” which
they can get at the average restaurant for a nickel. The man who is
reduced to “coffee-an’,” however, has touched bedrock.

    An old beggar who lingers about the Olive Branch Mission on
    South Desplaines Street claims that if he were guaranteed
    forty cents a day he could get on nicely. This would give
    him a bed every night and, as he says, a good bed is
    sometimes better than a meal.

    The daily routine of this old man’s life rarely takes him
    beyond the limits of a single block. On the south side
    of Madison Street, between 62 Desplaines Street and the
    Transedes Hotel, he is at home. All else is, for him, the
    open sea. When he ventures beyond the limits of this area
    into outlying territory he plans the trip the day before.

    There are perhaps a hundred old men on South State and West
    Madison streets whose interests and ambitions have shrunk
    to the same unvarying routine and the same narrow limits.[8]

Every man who enters Hobohemia is struggling to live above the
“coffee-an’” level, and the various devices that are employed in
accomplishing this are often ingenious. This business of wringing
from chance source enough money each day to supply one’s insistent
wants is known on the “stem” as “getting by.” “Getting by” may mean
anything from putting in a few hours a day at the most casual
labor to picking a pocket or purloining an overcoat. It includes
working at odd jobs, peddling small articles, street faking,
“putting over” old and new forms of grafts, “working” the folks at
home, “white collar” begging, stealing, and “jack rolling.”


WORKING AT ODD JOBS

In spite of all that has been said to the contrary, the hobo is a
worker. He is not a steady worker but he earns most of the money he
spends. There are migratory casual workers, who spend three or four
months each year in a Chicago lodging-house, who never look to the
public for assistance. They know how much money they will need to
tide them over the winter, and they have learned to spread it thin
to make it reach. Casual in their work, they are conservative in
their spending.

There are others who are never able to save anything. No matter how
much they bring to town they soon spend it. For these the odd job
is the likeliest means of livelihood. In a city like Chicago there
are almost always opportunities for men who are content to take
small jobs. Every restaurant must have dishwashers and waiters.
Every hotel needs porters; every saloon or pool hall employs men to
do odd jobs. Petty as these jobs are and little as they pay, men
not only take but seek them. One man who has been twenty years on
West Madison Street is working as night clerk in a lodging-house;
another does janitor work at nights and loafs daytime; still
another has been for some time a potato peeler in a Madison Street
restaurant.

Men who spurn steady jobs in favor of petty ones with pay every
night sometimes do so because they hate to leave the street. Often
it is because they are not properly clad or have no money to pay
their way.


PEDDLING A DEVICE FOR “GETTING BY”

In the eyes of the law, peddling in Chicago, at least, is not
begging.[9] Nevertheless much of the peddling in the streets is
merely legalized begging. Usually the articles offered for sale
are cheap wares which are disposed of for whatever “you care to
give.” Not infrequently the buyer gives four times what the article
is worth. There are hundreds of cripples in Chicago who gain a
livelihood by selling pencils or shoestrings. Many of these are
homeless men. Pencils bought for thirty-five cents a dozen retail
for a dime, or whatever the purchaser cares to tax himself. A
peddler’s license is a protection against the police and serves as
a moral prop to the beggar.

A peddler of shoestrings and pencils usually measures his success
by the number of sales made in which no change is asked. He expects
to be overpaid. Sometimes he persuades himself he is entitled to
be overpaid. The business of “getting by” by “touching hearts” is
usually spoken of as “work.” A peddler who works the North Side
will say: “I didn’t work yesterday; the day before I made three
dollars and eighty-five cents.” This man considers himself a _real_
cripple, because he has locomotor ataxia. He is incensed when he
meets a one-armed peddler, because a man with one arm is not a
real cripple. Real cripples should have first consideration. An
able-bodied man who begs when broke is beneath contempt. That is
“panhandling” and an able-bodied “panhandler” is always considered
despicable.

Many peddlers live in Hobohemian hotels, and spend their leisure
on the “stem.” When they go to “work” they take a car. Some of
them have regular stands. Not infrequently a peddler will assume
to monopolize a position in front of a church or near the entrance
of a factory where girls go and come. Beggars have a liberal fund
of knowledge about pay days. They know the factories where the
workers, when they have money, are “good.”


STREET FAKING

The chief difference between peddling and street faking is one of
method. The peddler appeals to the individual; the faker appeals
to the crowd. The faker is a salesman. He “pulls” a stunt or makes
a speech to attract the crowd. The peddler is more than often a
beggar. It requires considerably more initiative and force to play
the rôle of a street faker than to peddle.

Almost any time of the day at some street corner of the “stem” one
may see a faker with a crowd around him. His wares consist perhaps
of combination sets of cuff buttons and collar buttons, or some
other such “line.” Success depends upon the novelty of the article
offered. A new line of goods is much sought after and a good street
faker changes his line from time to time. Many fakers are homeless
men. Numbers of the citizens of Hobohemia have tried their hand at
some time or other at this kind of salesmanship. Those who are able
to “put it over” generally stay with the work.

Peddling jewelry is one old device for getting money, but it is not
too old to succeed. There are men who carry with them cheap rings
or watches which they sell by approaching the prospective buyers
individually. Sometimes they gather a crowd around them but that
rarely succeeds as well as when they work quietly. A faker may sit
beside a man in a park or approach him on the street and proffer a
ring or watch or pair of eyeglasses for sale cheap, on the grounds
that he is broke. Sometimes he will pretend that he found the
article and would like to get a little money for it. Often he will
tell of some sentiment connected with an article that he is trying
to dispose of. A man may have a ring that his mother gave him and
he will only part with it on condition that he might have the
privilege of redeeming it later. If he thought he could not redeem
it he would rather starve than part with it, etc. Hobos are often
the victims as well as the perpetrators of these fakes.


GRAFTS OLD AND NEW

Few of these tricks are new but none of them are so old that they
do not yield some return. They probably owe their long life to the
proverbial identity of fundamental human nature wherever it is
found.

One of the most ancient and universal forms of deception is the
fake disease. In Hobohemia a pretended affliction is called
“jiggers” or “bugs.”

    4. L. J. appealed to the Jewish Charities with a letter
    signed by a doctor in a hospital in Hot Springs saying that
    he had treated L. J. who was suffering from syphilis and
    that his eyes were affected and he would “undoubtedly go
    blind.” It was learned later that this letter was a forgery
    as were other credentials that the man carried. He had been
    in a hospital and had been treated for a venereal disease.
    While there he familiarized himself enough with the
    terminology of the disease so that he could talk with some
    intelligence about his case. He would say with conviction,
    “I know I’m going blind before long.” It further developed
    that he had been exploiting charity organizations in
    several cities. Before his entry upon this deception it was
    learned that he had earned a prison record.

An ancient ruse is to feign to be deaf and dumb. A man who played
“deaf-and-dumb” worked restaurants, drug stores, groceries, and
other places of business. He would enter the places and stand with
cap in hand. Never would he change the expression of his face,
regardless of what was said or done. When spoken to he would point
to his ears and mouth until he received some money, and then he
would bow. If there was a chance of getting something, he would
never leave a place unless he was in danger of being thrown out.
An investigator followed him for two hours before he learned he
was neither deaf nor dumb. Three months later he met the same man
working the same graft in another part of the city.

“The hat trick,” as it is sometimes called, is a popular means
of “getting by.” On a Sunday, a holiday, or indeed any evening,
the streets of Hobohemia are likely to be enlivened by men who
have a message, haranguing the crowds. They may be selling papers
or books on the proletarian movement. In any case, most of them
terminate their speeches by passing the hat. Few speakers spend
their eloquence on the audiences of Hobohemia without asking
something in return. It must not be assumed that these men are all
insincere. Many of them are, but most of them are in the “game” for
the money it yields. One of these orators is conspicuous because
his stock in trade is a confession that he is not like the other
speakers. He admits that he is out for bed and board. He will talk
on any subject, will permit himself to be laughed at, and jollied
by the crowd, but when he passes the hat he usually gets enough for
another day’s board.

The missions attract men who are religious primarily for profit.
Many who are really sincere find it more profitable to be on the
Lord’s side. Nearly every mission has a corps of men who perform
the “hat trick” by going from house to house begging old clothes
or cash or whatever the people care to give. The collector’s
conscience is the only check on the amount of money taken in. Some
missions divide all cash collections with the solicitors. Sometimes
the collector gets as much as fifty cents on the dollar.

The exploitation of children is as old as the history of vagrancy.
Even the tramp has learned that on the road boys may be used to
get money. A boy can beg better than an older man, and frequently
men will chum with boys for the advantages such companionships
give them. Boys who are new on the road are often willing to be
exploited by a veteran in exchange for the things they can learn
from him.


“WORKING THE FOLKS”

There is a type of tramp who lives on his bad reputation. He may
have been sent away for the sake of the family, or have fled for
safety, or he may have gone voluntarily to start life anew. Seldom
does he succeed, but family pride stands between him and his
return. He capitalizes the fact that his family does not want him
to return.

Such a man resides on South State Street. He comes from a good
family but his relatives do not care to have him about. He is fat
and greasy and dirty; he seems to have no opinions of his own; is
always getting into people’s way and making himself disagreeable
by his effort to be sociable. His relatives pay him four dollars a
week to stay in Chicago. On that amount, with what he can earn, he
is able to live.[10]

Another man raises funds now and then when he is broke by writing
or telegraphing that he is thinking about returning home. His
return means trouble. His requests for assistance are a kind of
blackmail levied on the family.[11]


“WHITE COLLAR” BEGGING

Most interesting among the beggars is the man, the well-dressed
and able-bodied individual, who begs on the strength of his
affiliations. These are the men who make a specialty of exploiting
their membership in fraternal organizations. Labor unions are
very much imposed upon by men who carry paid-up cards but who are
temporarily “down.” The organizations as such are not appealed
to as much as individual members. It is hard for a union man who
is working to turn away a brother who shows that he is in good
standing with the organization.

Of late the “ex-service-man” story has been a good means of getting
consideration, and the American Legion buttons have been worked to
the limit. Most of the men who wear parts of a uniform or other
insignia indicative of military service have really seen service
and many have seen action, but a great many of them have heard more
than they have seen.

There are men who make a specialty of “working” the charity
organizations. Some of them are so adept that they know beforehand
what they will be asked and have a stereotyped response for every
stereotyped question. These men know a surprising amount about the
inside workings of the charitable agencies and they generously hand
on their information to their successor. They usually know, for
example, what material aid may be had from each organization. A
typical case is that of Brown.

    5. Brown had not been in Chicago an hour until he had
    located the chief organizations to which he might go for
    help. He knew that he could check his bag at the Y.M.C.A.
    He learned where to go for a bath, where to get clean
    clothes, how to get a shave and haircut and he actually
    succeeded in getting some money from the United Charities.
    He was able to “flop” in a bed even though he came to town
    without money late in the afternoon; whereas many other men
    in the same position would have been forced to “carry the
    banner.” He knew about the charity organizations in all the
    cities he had visited from the Atlantic to the Pacific.
    After his case was traced it was learned that he told about
    the same story wherever he went and that he was known in
    organizations in all the cities to which he referred. He
    is 27 years old and has been living for the most part in
    institutions or at the expense of organizations since he
    was 13.

    6. Another case is that of P. S., a Jewish boy who made his
    way between New York and Chicago three times and received
    accommodation at the Jewish charity associations in nearly
    every big city on his road between here and New York. He is
    a mental case and goes to the Charities because of a sense
    of helplessness. Since the last contact with him that the
    Chicago Jewish charities have had he has learned to get
    over the country with a little more confidence but he never
    fails to hunt up the welfare organization as soon as he
    comes to town. He was last heard of in California.


BORROWING AND BEGGING

Nearly every homeless man “goes broke” at times. Some of them do
not feel that a trip to town has been a success if they return
to the job with money in their pockets. On the other hand, they
do not feel that they have had their money’s worth unless they
remain in town a week or two after they have “blown in.” As they
linger they face the problem of living. They may have friends
but that is unusual. The homeless man used to get advances from
the saloon keeper with whom he spent his money. Such loans were
often faithfully made good, but they were just as often “beat.”
Prohibition has put an end to that kind of philanthropy.

Many of the men who visit the city intermittently loaf and work
by turns. These men often beg but they do not remain at it long,
perhaps a day or so, or until disgust seizes them. Often when they
beg they are drunk or “rum-dum.” As soon as they are sober they
quit. Sometimes they succeed in attaching themselves to a friend
who has just arrived with a “roll.” But living at the expense of
another migrant quickly palls. Soon they will be found scanning the
“boards” for free shipment to another job. They disappear from the
streets for a season. As soon as they get a “stake,” however, they
will be seen again treating the boys and swapping stories on the
“main stem”; if not in Chicago, then in some other city. It is the
life.

The more interesting types are those who live continuously in the
city and are broke most of the time. Some of them have reduced the
problem of “getting by” to an art. The tramp who only occasionally
goes “broke” may try to imitate these types but he soon tires of
the game and goes to work. The chief classes of beggars are the
“panhandlers” and the “moochers.”

The “panhandler” can sometimes extract from the pockets of others
what amounts to large sums of money. Some “panhandlers” are able to
beg from ten to twenty dollars a day. The “panhandler” is a beggar
who knows how to beg without loss of dignity. He is not docile and
fawning. He appeals in a frank, open manner and usually “comes away
with the goods.” The “moocher” begs for nickels and dimes. He is an
amateur. He goes to the back door of a house or hotel and asks for
a sandwich. His appeal is to pity.

The antagonisms between beggars and peddlers are very keen. The man
who carries a permit to peddle has no respect for the individual
who merely begs. Nevertheless, some peddlers, when business is
slow, themselves turn beggars. On the other hand, the man who
begs professes to consider himself far more respectable than the
peddler who uses his license as an excuse to get money. This is the
language and opinion of a professional: “Good begging is far more
honorable than bad peddling and most of this shoestring and lead
pencil peddling is bad. I am not going to beat around the bush. I
am not going to do any of this petty grafting to get enough to live
on.”[12] These antagonisms are evidence of a struggle for status.
When a peddler denounces the beggars he is trying to justify
himself. His philosophy, like most philosophies, is an attempt to
justify his vocation. The same is true of plain beggars. Most of
them are able to justify their means of “getting by.”


STEALING

Hobos are not clever enough to be first-class crooks nor daring
enough to be classed as criminals. Yet most of them will steal
something to eat. There are men who are peculiarly expert at
stealing food from back-door steps--pies or cakes that have been
set out to cool, for example. There are men who wander about the
residential areas, in order to steal from back doors. Some men
follow the milkman as he goes from door to door delivering milk and
cream, in order to steal a bottle when the opportunity offers. A
quart of milk makes an excellent breakfast.

Stealing becomes serious when men break into stores and box cars.
It is not what they take but what they spoil that does the damage.
This is the chief complaint of the railroad against the tramp.
In the country the tramp is often destructive to the orchards he
visits. He will shake down more fruit than he can possibly use and
dig up a dozen hills of potatoes to get enough for a “mulligan.”


“JACK ROLLING”

“Jack rolling” may be anything from picking a man’s pocket in a
crowd to robbing him while he is drunk or asleep. On every “stem”
there are a goodly number of men who occasionally or continually
“roll” their fellow-tramps. Nearly every migrant who makes
periodical trips to the city after having saved his earnings for
three or four months can tell of at least one encounter with the
“jack roller.” Scarcely a day goes by on Madison Street but some
man is relieved of a “stake” by some “jack” who will, perhaps,
come around later and join in denouncing men who will rob a
workingman.

The average hobo is often indiscreet with his money, and especially
so when he is drunk. He often displays it, even scatters it at
times. This is a great temptation to men who have been living
“close to their bellies” for months. As unpopular as the “jack
roller” is among the tramps there are few who would overlook an
opportunity to take a few dollars from a “drunk,” seeing that he
was in possession of money that someone else was bound to take
sooner or later.

    7. An investigator became acquainted with two men who
    were jack rollers who operated on Madison Street west of
    Halsted. They were well dressed for the “street” though
    not so well groomed as to be conspicuous. The investigator
    pretended to them that he had just spent ninety days in the
    jail in Salt Lake City for “rolling” a drunk. They had no
    sympathy for a man who would get drunk and wallow in the
    gutter. “He’s not entitled to have any money.” Neither of
    these men drank but they “chased women” and one of them
    played the races. Neither had any scruples against taking
    money from a drunken or sleeping man. They were able to
    justify themselves as easily as the peddlers and beggars
    do. Said one of them, “Everybody is eating on everybody he
    can get at, and they don’t care where they bite. Believe
    me, as long as I can play safe I’m going to get mine.”


“GETTING BY” IN WINTER

During the cold winter months the problem of “getting by” becomes
serious. In the spring, summer, and fall hobos can sleep in
the parks, in vacant houses, on the docks, in box cars, or in
any other place where they may curl up and pass a few hours in
slumber without fear of disturbance. But finding “flops” in winter
usually engages the best effort a “bo” can muster. Besides food
and shelter, the hobo must manage in some way to secure winter
clothing. Above all he needs shelter, and shelter for the man
without money is not easy to find in the city.

The best scouting qualities the average man can command are needed
to get along in winter. There are many places to sleep and loaf
during the day, but the good places are invariably crowded. For
sleeping quarters police stations, railroad depots, doorways,
mission floors, and even poolrooms are pressed into service. It is
not uncommon for men who cannot find a warm place to sleep to walk
the streets all night. This practice of walking the streets all
night, snatching a wink of sleep here and a little rest there, is
termed, in the parlance of the road, “carrying the banner.” He who
“carries the banner” during the night usually tries to snatch a bit
of sleep during the day in places he does not have access to in the
night time. He may go into the missions, but in cold weather the
missions are crowded. They are crowded with men who sit for hours
in a stupor between sleeping and waking. In almost every mission on
the “stem” there are attendants known as “bouncers,” whose duties
during the meetings are to shake and harass men who have lost
themselves in slumber.

Lodging-houses are also imposed upon by men who have no money to
pay for a bed but who loaf in the lobbies during the day. Most
lodging-houses make an effort to keep men out who are not guests.
Fear is instilled into their hearts by occasionally calling the
police to clear the lobbies of loafers. All who dare spend their
leisure time in the public library, but the average tramp, unkempt
and unclean from a night on the street, cannot muster sufficient
courage to enter a public library.

The missions and other charity organizations play an important part
in supplying the cold-weather wants of the tramp. They usually make
it a point to get on hand at the beginning of winter a large supply
of overcoats, or “bennies,” and other clothes that are either sold
at moderate prices or are given away. Such clothes are usually
solicited from the public, and the men on the “stem” believe that
they are entitled to them. Hence each man makes an effort to get
what he feels is coming to him. When winter comes they begin to
bestir themselves and concoct schemes for securing the desired
amount of clothing to keep out the cold. During the winter time
many of these men will submit to being “converted” in order to get
food and shelter.

Competition between homeless men in winter is keen. Food is scarce,
jobs are less plentiful, people are less generous, and there are
more men begging. Many of the short-job men become beggars and a
large number of those who are able to peddle during the summer
likewise enter the ranks of the beggars. As beggars multiply, the
housewife is less generous with the man at the back door, the man
on the street also hardens his heart, and the police are called on
for protection.

    8. “Fat” is a very efficient “panhandler.” He does not
    always “panhandle” but works when the opportunities present
    and the weather permits. He gets his money from men on the
    street, but he does most of his begging in winter when he
    cannot get the courage to leave town. He can beg for three
    or four hours and obtain about three dollars in that time.
    He only “panhandles” when his money is gone. He has a good
    personality and appeals for help in a frank, open manner
    giving no hard-luck story. He says that he is a workingman
    temporarily down and that he is trying to get some money to
    leave town. He does not work the same street every day. He
    keeps sober.

    He has no moral scruples against begging, nor against work.
    He works and works well when circumstances force him to
    it. He doesn’t feel mean when out begging or “stemming.”
    He looks upon it as a legitimate business and better than
    stealing, and so long as the situation is such he might as
    well make the best of it. He seldom “panhandles” in summer.

    He has an interesting philosophy. He calculates that
    according to the law of averages out of each hundred
    persons he begs, a certain number will turn him down,
    a certain number will “bawl him out,” a certain number
    will give him advice, and a certain number will give him
    something, and his earnings will average about three
    dollars. So he goes at the job with vigor each time in
    order to get it over as soon as possible. “You get to
    expect about so much police interference and so much
    opposition from the people, and you get more of this in
    winter than in summer, but that is the case in whatever
    line you go into.”

    “Fat” works and begs as the notion strikes him but he
    does less begging in summer and less work in winter. If
    he doesn’t like one city he goes to another. Last winter
    (1921-22) he was in Chicago, not because he likes Chicago
    but because he happened to be here.


THE GAME OF “GETTING BY”

“Getting by” is a game not without its elements of fascination. The
man who “panhandles” is getting a compensation that is not wholly
measured by the nickels and dimes he accumulates. Even the peddler
of shoestrings likes to think of “good days” when he is able to
surpass himself. It matters not by what means “the down-and-out”
gets his living; he manages to find a certain satisfaction in the
game. The necessity of “putting it over” has its own compensations.

No group in Hobohemia is wholly without status. In every group
there are classes. In jail grand larceny is a distinction as
against petit larceny. In Hobohemia men are judged by the methods
they use to “get by.” Begging, faking, and the various other
devices for gaining a livelihood serve to classify these men among
themselves. It matters not where a man belongs, somewhere he has
a place and that place defines him to himself and to his group.
No matter what means an individual employs to get a living he
struggles to retain some shred of self-respect. Even the outcast
from home and society places a high value upon his family name.

    9. S. R. is an Englishman fifteen years in this country.
    When he came to the United States to earn a “stake” he left
    his wife in England. His intention was to save enough money
    to send for her. He came here partly to overcome his love
    for alcohol but he found as much drink here and it was as
    accessible. He earned “big money” as a bricklayer but he
    never saved any. He became ashamed of himself after a year
    or two and ceased to write to his wife. That is, he had
    other interests here.

    Today he is a physical wreck. He is paralyzed on one side
    and he is also suffering from tuberculosis brought on by
    injudicious exposure and drink. He told his story but asked
    that his real name, which he told, should not be used. For,
    he said, “I am the only one who has ever disgraced that
    name.”

Several old men on West Madison Street are living on mere pittances
but are too proud to go to the poorhouse. They much prefer to take
their chances with other mendicants. They want to play the game to
the end. As long as they are able to totter about the street and
hold out their hands they feel that they are holding their own. To
go to an institution would mean that they had given up. Dependent
as they are and as pitiful as they look, they still have enough
self-respect to resent the thought of complete surrender.

In the game of “getting by” the homeless man is practically sure
sooner or later to lose his economic independence. At any time
(except perhaps in periods of prolonged unemployment), only a small
proportion of homeless men are grafters, beggars, fakers, or petty
criminals. Yet, all the time, the migratory casual workers are
living from hand to mouth, always perilously near the margin of
dependence. Consequently, few homeless men have not been temporary
dependents, and great numbers of them must in time become permanent
dependents.

This process of personal degradation of the migratory casual worker
from economic independence to pauperism is only an aspect of the
play of economic forces in modern industrial society. Seasonal
industries, business cycles, alternate periods of employment and
of unemployment, the casualization of industry, have created
this great industrial reserve army of homeless, foot-loose men
which concentrates in periods of slack employment, as winter, in
strategic centers of transportation, our largest cities. They
must live; the majority of them are indispensable in the present
competitive organization of industry; agencies and persons moved
by religious and philanthropic impulses will continue to alleviate
their condition; and yet their concentration in increasing numbers
in winter in certain areas of our large cities cannot be regarded
otherwise than as a menace. The policy of allowing the migratory
casual laborer to “get by” is, however, easier and cheaper at the
moment, even if the prevention of the economic deterioration and
personal degradation of the homeless men would, in the long run,
make for social efficiency and national economy.


FOOTNOTES:

[8] See Document 18.

[9] The mayor’s office issued about 6,000 free permits in 1922 to
peddle from house to house (not from wagon or cart), from basket or
other receptacle, only for a period of sixty days.

[10] Unpublished Document 111.

[11] Unpublished Document 112.

[12] Unpublished Document 113.




  PART II

  TYPES OF HOBOS




CHAPTER V

WHY DO MEN LEAVE HOME?


Why are there tramps and hobos? What are the conditions and motives
that make migratory workers, vagrants, homeless men? Attempts to
answer these questions have invariably raised other questions even
more difficult to answer. Homeless men themselves are not always
agreed in regard to the matter. The younger men put the blame upon
circumstance and external conditions. The older men, who know life
better, are humbler. They are disposed to go to the other extreme
and put all the blame on themselves.

    10. “My old man tried his d--dest to get me to go to
    school; but no, I couldn’t learn anything in school. I
    could make my own way. I could get along without the old
    man or his advice. Well, when I woke up I was forty years
    old, of course it was too late. I couldn’t go back. That’s
    what’s the matter with half of these d--d kids on the road.
    No one can tell them anything. They’re burning up to learn
    something on their own hook; and they’ll learn it, too.”

From the records and observations of a great many men the reasons
why men leave home seem to fall under several heads: (_a_) seasonal
work and unemployment, (_b_) industrial inadequacy, (_c_) defects
of personality, (_d_) crises in the life of the person, (_e_)
racial or national discrimination, and (_f_) wanderlust.


SEASONAL WORK AND UNEMPLOYMENT

Chief among the economic causes why men leave home are (1)
seasonal occupations, (2) local changes in industry, (3) seasonal
fluctuations in the demand for labor, and (4) periods of
unemployment. The cases of homeless men studied in Chicago show
how these conditions of work tend to require and to create the
migratory worker.

1) The industrial attractions of seasonal work often make a
powerful appeal to the foot-loose man and boy. A new railroad that
is building, a mining camp just opening up, an oil boom widely
advertised, a bumper crop to be harvested in Kansas or the Dakotas
fire the imagination and bring thousands of recruits each year into
the army of seasonal and migratory workers.

    11. Fifty-eight years old and born in Belgium. He came to
    this country with his parents in 1882. His family moved to
    a farm in northern Wisconsin where they remained several
    years. The boy worked during his spare time in the woods.
    His father soon became tired of farming and decided he
    could do better in the coal camps of southern Illinois, for
    he had been a miner in Belgium. After the family moved, the
    boy grew restless in the mining town and decided to return
    to his old home town in Wisconsin where he could get a job
    in the woods which was more to his liking. For several
    years he divided his time between the northern woods in
    winter and the mines at his Illinois home in summer. But
    he never liked coal mining and later began to go to the
    harvest fields for his summer employment. Sometimes he
    worked on railroad construction or at other seasonal work.
    He has spent several winters in Chicago, and usually (he
    says) he has been able to pay his way. However this year,
    1921-22, he has been eating some at the missions.

This case shows the steps by which a stationary seasonal worker
becomes a migratory worker. It indicates how easily and naturally
the migrant may sink still lower in the economic scale until he
spends his winters in Hobohemia “feeding at the missions.”

2) Local changes in industry dislocate the routine of work of the
wage-earner. The timber in certain regions gives out, mines close
down when the ore is exhausted or when prices drop, or in the
reorganization of an industry a branch factory may be abandoned.
Under these circumstances, certain workers are compelled to look
elsewhere for employment. Those who are free to move naturally
migrate. The following case is that of a migratory worker who with
the passing of the West finds it difficult to make the necessary
adjustment.

    12. A. is the pioneer type of hobo. He came to Chicago
    because he was pressed eastward by the closing down of the
    mines in the West. He is about fifty years old. He was born
    in southern Illinois but grew restless on the farm. He left
    home in his teens to drive a team on the railroad grades.
    He moved West with the railroad building. He got into the
    mining game at Cripple Creek, and then turned prospector.
    He spent a couple of years in the mines of Alaska. He has
    never been able to attach himself to an old established
    camp. He has worked in the mines of northern Michigan but
    did not like it there. He regrets that he came East. He
    says that he was never so hopelessly down in the West. He
    plans to go back where he knows people and where he can go
    out and get some kind of a job when he feels like going to
    work.

    This man always carried a bundle in the West. He laments
    that he found it necessary to throw his bed away when he
    came East. He claims that a man with a bed and a desire
    to work can get along better in the West than he has seen
    anyone get along here. Out there he only went to town four
    or five times a year. The rest of the time he was out in
    the hills. Out there he could always find work (until this
    recent industrial depression), but here he has not seen any
    jobs he cares for.

3) Seasonal fluctuations in the demand for labor accompanied by the
seasonal rise and fall in wages have greatly affected the ebb and
flow of workers.

    Industrial fluctuations may be classed as cyclical and
    seasonal. Cyclical fluctuations result from business
    depressions and at times double the amount of loss of
    time during a year, which is illustrated by the fact that
    the railroads employed 236,000 fewer men in 1908 than in
    1907. Seasonal fluctuations may either be inappreciable,
    as in municipal utilities, or may displace nearly the
    entire labor force. The seasonal fluctuations in the
    canning industry in California, for example, involve nearly
    nine-tenths of all the workers; in logging camps, which
    depend upon the snow, operations are practically suspended
    in summer; while in the brick and tile industry only 36.5
    per cent of the total number of employees are retained
    during the dull season. Irregularities in the conduct of
    industry and in the method of employing labor are evident
    in dock work, in the unskilled work in iron and steel,
    and in slaughtering and meat packing; in the competitive
    conditions in industries which force employers to cut
    labor cost down to the utmost and to close down in order
    to save operating expenses; in speculative practices which
    result in the piling up of orders and alternate periods
    of rush production and inactivity; in loss of time due
    to inefficient management within plants. In some cases
    it has been charged, although without definite proof,
    that irregularity of employment is due to a deliberate
    policy of employers in order to lessen the chance of
    organized movement, as well as to keep the level of wages
    down in unskilled occupations by continually hiring new
    individuals.[13]

4) Periods of unemployment throw hundreds of thousands of men out
of work. But the effects of unemployment are not ended with the
passing of the period of business depression. The majority of
men, it is true, return to work with their economic efficiency
little if any impaired by the stress and strain of uncertainty
and deprivation. But upon thousands of men the enforced period
of idleness has had a disorganizing effect.[14] The demoralizing
effect of being out of work is particularly marked upon the
unskilled laborer. His regular routine of work has been
interrupted; habits of loafing are easily acquired. The path of
personal degradation may lead to the “bread line” at the mission,
and from there to panhandling in the Loop.

    An increasingly large number of laborers go downward
    instead of upward. Young men, full of ambition and high
    hopes for the future start their life as workers, but
    meeting failure after failure in establishing themselves
    in some trade or calling, their ambitions and hopes go
    to pieces, and they gradually sink into the ranks of
    migratory and casual workers. Continuing their existence
    in these ranks they begin to lose self-respect and
    become “hobos.” Afterwards, acquiring certain negative
    habits, as those of drinking, begging, and losing all
    self-control, self-respect, and desire to work, they
    become “down-and-outs”--tramps, bums, vagabonds, gamblers,
    pickpockets, yeggmen, and other petty criminals--in short,
    public parasites, the number of whom seems to be growing
    faster than the general population.[15]


THE INDUSTRIALLY INADEQUATE

Every year thousands of men fail in the struggle for existence.
For one reason or another, they cannot, or at least they do not,
keep the pace set by modern large-scale industry. These men are
“misfits,” industrially inadequate.

The majority of individuals, commonly regarded as industrially
inadequate, are probably feeble-minded or restless types like the
emotionally unstable and the egocentric and fall into the group
of defective personalities to be considered later. Other causes
of industrial incompetency are (1) physical handicaps due to
accidents, sickness, or occupational diseases; (2) alcoholism and
drug addiction; and (3) old age.

1) The workers in certain industries are exposed to dangerous dusts
and gases. The printers have learned the risks of their trade and
endeavor to cope with them. Other industries have taken steps to
eliminate industrial hazards. Many transients are miners who go
from one job to another exposing themselves to different dangers.

    13. O. O. is fifty-three years old and he has been a
    migrant for many years. He has been a lumber jack and a
    harvest hand. He has tried his hand at various casual
    jobs but most of his time has been spent in the mines.
    He used to work in the most dangerous mines because they
    generally pay the most money. Three years ago (about 1919)
    while working in the copper mines in Butte, Montana, he
    contracted miner’s “con,” which is some sort of lung
    trouble. He had no place to go, could not hold a job, and
    has wandered about the country ever since. He has no hope
    of regaining his health and is too proud to return to his
    people who live in Ohio.

Other industries also have their victims.

    14. G. T. came from the New England states. He was
    wandering about the country in hope of regaining his
    health. He was a textile worker and claims that the dyes
    and dust were the cause of his condition. There was no
    means at hand of proving his story but the fact that he was
    in ill health, very much underweight, and he was not able
    to do heavy work. Numerous times he was rebuked because he
    asked for light work.

Many men in Hobohemia have limbs or parts of limbs missing, or
bent and twisted bodies. These are victims of industrial or
non-industrial accidents.

    15. Red begs and sometimes peddles pencils along Halsted
    Street. He lost his leg several years ago while working in
    the coal mines. In his sober moments he claims that his
    own carelessness was partly to blame for his loss, but he
    also holds that the company was negligent. His leg at first
    had only been bruised and he went back to work in a damp,
    cold place, and inflammation set in. He has since become
    accommodated to a life of begging and peddling.

2) Alcoholism decreases the economic efficiency of the worker and
so tends to depress him into the group of homeless men. Before
prohibition the saloon had no better patron than the homeless man.
In Chicago today bootleggers and blind pigs in the vicinity of the
“stem” thrive upon the homeless man’s love for liquor.

    16. E. J. loafs on West Madison Street and South State
    Street. He drinks and does not care who knows it. He has
    been a drinking man for years. “Booze put me on the bum.
    Now, I’m here and I’m too old to be good for anything, so
    why not keep it up? You’re goin’ t’ die when your time
    comes anyway; so why not keep it up?” His philosophy helps
    him to live and he lives as well as he can by begging a
    little, working when any jobs come his way. He used to be
    a carpenter but has lost his efficiency at that trade. He
    threw up his membership in the union several years ago.

Drinking is responsible for keeping many men on the road. One man
said that he left home because he had too many drinking friends.
He has been on the road for several years but wherever he goes
he finds other drinking friends. An old man refuses to live with
his children in the country because he cannot get his “morning’s
morning” while with them. They have written him time and again but
he does not answer.

Drug addiction likewise decreases the industrial efficiency of its
victims. Drug addicts among homeless men seldom are transient.
Those who are transient are often cocaine users who are able to do
without the drug for considerable periods of time. Not infrequently
“coke heads” or “snow-birds” are found among the hobo workers. When
on out-of-town jobs, they are prone to go to town occasionally to
indulge in a cocaine spree much as a “booze-hoister” indulges in
a liquor spree. When their money is gone they return to work and
do not touch the “snow” for weeks or months. Users of heroin or
morphine are not able to separate themselves from the source of
supply for so long a time.

Because of the secret nature of the practice, the extent of drug
addiction among homeless men is unknown. Men who use drugs are
loath to disclose the fact to anyone but drug users. The drug
addict employs every scheme to keep his practice a secret whereas
the drinking man strives to share his joy with others. The fear
of being discovered drives many addicts from the circle of their
family and friends and many of them drift into the homeless man
areas where they enjoy the maximum seclusion.

    17. The investigator was accosted by a beggar in the Loop.
    He was impressed by the fervor and the hurry with which
    the man begged him and was away. He followed the man for
    several blocks and watched him accost more than a hundred
    persons, all men. The only men from whom he failed to
    solicit were those accompanied by women. If two men were
    standing two or three yards apart he accosted each one
    individually. Only one or two men gave him anything. Most
    of them looked with suspicion at him, and not without
    reason, for although he was fairly well dressed he was
    very dirty and his clothes looked as if he had been
    sleeping out. He had a pallid, leaden complexion, and he
    had a ten days’ growth of beard. He had a wild, hunted
    expression and impressed the investigator as being a drug
    addict. He continued to follow the man and engaged him in
    conversation. He learned that he had just beat his way from
    Boston. He had ridden passenger trains all the way and had
    come in less than three days. His only difficulty was in
    Buffalo where he says that a policeman pulled him off the
    train and beat him. Why he left Boston he would not say. He
    denied being a “dope” then and it was not till three days
    later when he was seen in Grant Park that he admitted the
    fact. He came to Chicago because he knew more people here
    and was certain of getting morphine.

Drug users need as much as three or four dollars a day, and even
more, to supply their wants. As a rule they are physically unfit
to earn a living. They cannot live as the hobos do because the
average hobo does not have money enough to buy drugs. They may be
forced to live in cheap hotels and to eat in cheap restaurants but
only to save money to satisfy the craving for “dope.” Drug addicts
wander very little except to make rapid trips from city to city.
The drug addict tends to become a criminal rather than a migratory
worker. Their natural habitat is the great city.

3) Many old men in the tramp class are not able to work and are
too independent to go to the almshouse. Some of them have spent
their lives on the road. These old, homeless men usually find
their way to the larger cities. Unlike the younger men they have
no dreams and no longer burn with the desire to travel. Many have
been self-supporting until they were overtaken by senility. It is
pitiable to see an old man tottering along the streets living a
hand-to-mouth existence.

    18. J. is an old man who lives in a cheap hotel on South
    Desplaines Street, where a few cents a day will house him.
    He is seventy-two, very bent and gray. Once he was picked
    up on the street in winter and sent to the hospital where
    he remained a day or two and was transferred to the poor
    house at Oak Forest. He ran away from the poor house two
    years ago and has managed to live. He seldom gets more
    than a block or two from his lodging. Even today (1923) he
    may be seen on a cold day shivering without an overcoat
    on Madison Street. He is a good beggar and manages to get
    from fifty cents to a dollar a day from the “boys” on
    the “stem.” Sometimes during the warm weather he makes
    excursions of three to five blocks away on begging tours.
    He is exceedingly feeble and walking that distance is hard
    work for him. Work is out of the question. There are very
    few jobs that he could manage.

This case is typical. During the summer time, when it is possible
to sit outdoors in comfort, numbers of old men may be found in
groups on the pavements or in the parks. In winter they are too
much occupied seeking food and shelter.

The physically handicapped and industrially inefficient individuals
are numerous among the homeless men. The handicap is, in part at
least, the reason of their presence in that class. Competition with
able-bodied workers forces them into the scrap heap.


DEFECTS OF PERSONALITY

Psychological and sociological studies of vagabondage in France,
Italy, and Germany have led to the conclusion that the vagabond
is primarily a psychopathic type.[16] The findings of European
psychopathologists are, of course, the result of case-studies
of beggars and wanderers in these countries and cannot without
reservation be accepted for the United States. Undoubtedly there
are large numbers of individuals with defects of personalities
among American hobos and tramps, but there are also large numbers
of normal individuals. The American tradition of pioneering,
wanderlust, seasonal employment, attract into the group of
wanderers and migratory workers a great many energetic and
venturesome normal boys and young men.

William Healy, for several years director of the Psychopathic
Institute of Chicago, sums up the relation of mental deficiency to
vagabondage in these words:

    We have seen vagabondage in connection with
    feeble-mindedness, epilepsy, dementia precox, but we
    have also seen the same behavior in normal boys who had
    conceived a grudge, with or without good reasons, against
    home conditions. Again, we have seen normal lads who have
    been seeking larger experiences in this way.[17]

Dr. Healy’s observations were made primarily with juveniles, but
he adds cautiously a conclusion as to the explanation of adult
vagabondage:

    When vagabondage is continued beyond the unstable years
    of adolescence, generalizations on the character of the
    individuals are more likely to be correct. But even here
    the only chance of adequate conception of the relationship
    between the behavior and the type of individual who engages
    in it is to be found in a personal study of him.

The proportion of feeble-minded is popularly supposed to be
higher among the migratory and casual laborer than in the general
population. In the earlier studies, only the most obvious cases
of mental defect were noted. Mrs. Solenberger by common-sense
observation or medical examinations found only eighty-nine of the
one thousand men she examined to be feeble-minded, epileptic, or
insane.[18]

In recent years mental tests have been given to small groups of
unemployed men, in which the types of the hobo, tramp, and bum
were well represented. Knollin found 20 per cent of the 150 hobos
he tested feeble-minded.[19] Pintner and Toops examined two groups
of applicants at Ohio free employment agencies by standardized
tests other than the Stanford revision of the Binet-Simon. Of the
94 men taking the tests at Columbus, 28.7 per cent were diagnosed
as feeble-minded. Of the 40 unemployed men examined at Dayton 7.5
per cent were assigned to the feeble-minded class.[20] Glenn R.
Johnson gave the Stanford revision of the Binet-Simon tests to 107
men out of work in Portland, and found 18 per cent feeble-minded,
i.e., under twelve years mental age.[21] As he had expected, he
found the proportion of inferior intelligence lower than that of
the 62 business men and high-school students upon which Terman
had standardized his tests for adults, but he also found among
hobos a higher percentage of superior adults. He found also that
the higher the intelligence of the individual the shorter the
period of holding a job among the unemployed. The testing of an
unselected group of 653 men in the army by the Stanford revision
of the Binet-Simon tests affords an interesting opportunity for a
comparison with the results of the Portland study.

This comparison would indicate that the intelligence of the
unemployed is not lower, but, if anything, higher than that of the
adult males tested in army camps. Apparently other factors than
intelligence are decisive in determining whether an individual
is employable or unemployable, or whether he makes or fails to
make an adequate adjustment in the normal routine of industrial
organization.

The defects in personality commonly found in the cases of homeless
men studied in Chicago are those noted by the students of vagabondage
and unemployment, namely, feeble-mindedness, constitutional
inferiority, emotional instability, and egocentricity. In a survey of
100 cases of unemployment which had been received as patients in the
Boston Psychopathic Hospital, Dr. Herman M. Adler found that 43 fell
into the class of _paranoid personality_ (egocentricity). The next
largest group of 35 cases was assigned to the class of _inadequate
personality_ (mentally defective or feeble-minded). The remaining
cases, 22 in number, were diagnosed as _emotionally unstable
personality_. An analysis of the months employed per case showed that
the emotionally unstable group averages 50 months to each job; the
inadequate group 24.7 months to each job; and the paranoid group 20.6
months to each job.[22]

MENTAL CAPACITY OF ARMY GROUP AND OF PORTLAND UNEMPLOYED AS
MEASURED BY STANFORD-BINET

  ============+=============+============
              | ARMY GROUP  |  PORTLAND
   MENTAL AGE |             | UNEMPLOYED
              +-------------+------------
              |  653 Cases  | 105 Cases
  ------------+-------------+------------
              |  Per Cent   | Per Cent
    5         |     0.2     |
    6         |     0.3     |
    7         |     0.2     |    1.9
    8         |     3.4     |    1.9
    9         |     9.5     |    3.8
   10         |    10.1     |    6.7
   11         |    10.6     |    5.7
   12         |    12.4     |    8.6
   13         |    10.6     |   16.2
   14         |    11.8     |   18.1
   15         |     9.6     |   11.4
   16         |     8.3     |    9.5
   17         |     7.2     |    7.6
   18         |     5.2     |    7.6
   19         |     0.8     |    2.9
  ------------+-------------+------------

Many individuals not feeble-minded find their way into the group
of casual and migratory workers by reason of other defects of
personality, for example, emotional instability and egocentricity.
Among transient laborers the very great turnover cannot be entirely
accounted for by industrial conditions. Much of their shifting from
scene to scene is indicative of their emotional instability and
restlessness.

    19. W. E. was born in a little village in Kentucky. His
    first job away from home was on the section. When he
    learned that it was the meanest job on the railroad he
    decided to change. He got a job on an extra-gang where he
    moved about considerably, worked in several towns during
    the summer. Later got a steady job on a farm but he soon
    tired of “eating at the same table day after day” and he
    went to Kansas City where he worked in a box factory. He
    became expert at it but soon tired of using the same tools,
    and working as fast as possible day after day, and he
    changed. He worked in several factories making boxes but
    there was no difference. Then with his meager experience
    with tools he got in the maintenance of way work of a
    railroad. Here he had some variety and remained a year.
    Decided he wanted to work in the mines and he got a job
    timbering. Later he tried his hand at millwright work but
    he soon quit that and went back to the bridge gang. He
    still goes to town every month or two to spend his money
    and each time he goes out to some different job.

In hard times when work is scarce and wages are low, voluntary
quitting of jobs is much less than in good times. Hobos are
easily piqued and they will “walk off” the job on the slightest
pretext, even when they have the best jobs and living conditions
are relatively good. Hobo philosophy is disposed to represent the
man who is a long time on the job as a piker. He ought to leave a
job once in a while simply to assert his independence and to learn
something else about other jobs. The following case shows the
relation of instability and egocentricity to labor turnover:

    20. Yes, Pete had had plenty of good jobs, but something
    had always gone against him. At one place not long ago they
    wanted him to continue work in spite of the dust which was
    blowing everywhere. Another rude employer never spoke to
    him (or any other of the employees) politely.

    No one should work for a man like that. Upon another
    occasion the boss suggested reform of a certain habit--as
    if he had any right to tell an American citizen what he
    ought to do.

    He had worked at almost everything, but it went against his
    very nature to do one thing very long. He would, in two
    or three weeks, quit and look for a different occupation.
    Why he quit, I am sure he didn’t know. “Independence,”
    “Justice,” and “American Equality” furnished the material
    for his excuses, but they were only excuses.

A survey of the so-called “intellectuals” of Hobohemia reveals a
group of egocentric and rebellious natures who decry most things
that are. Intellectuals, just because they are highly organized
and specialized, are very likely to become misfits outside of the
environment to which they artificially are adapted. When, added to
this handicap, they lack the discipline which a regular occupation
affords they are likely to become quite impossible.

    21. H. has a great chart that he uses to preach evolution
    to the curbstone audiences. He has learned a few scientific
    terms from one or two books he has read. He has no use for
    the modern scientists. He considers them heretic. He is a
    student of Darwin “and those old-timers.” When pinned down
    he is not able to discuss clearly what contributions the
    old-timers made or what they believed.

    22. D. H. is a student of economics according to Karl Marx.
    He has no room in his thinking for any contribution of any
    other man. Indeed, he does not think that anyone has made
    any contribution since Marx. One of his stock phrases is
    “Now get this into your heads. I am making it simple so
    that you can understand it.”

    23. B. is writing a novel. He has been working on it for
    several years. He also writes songs, popular songs. But
    he has never sold a song nor has he ever been able to
    interest a publisher in his novel. He calls the publishers
    a lot of grafters and claims that they are in league to
    keep the poor writers down.

    24. L. is a soap-box orator. He has one hobby. He is
    a single-taxer. He is a great believer in Lincoln,
    Washington, Jefferson. To him there is only one problem, to
    find out who is exploiting the people, and there is only
    one remedy and that the single tax. He will entertain no
    argument against the single tax. Anyone who does not share
    his opinion is to be pitied.

The intellectuals are frequently egocentric. They are obsessed by
some peculiar point of view. As egocentrics they are in conflict
with the rest of the world. Their cry is often a lament and just as
often a justification or defense.

A study of individual cases seems to indicate that there is a
large proportion of inadequate personalities among homeless men.
The following cases indicate the variety of ways in which personal
defects lead to a migratory existence which lands them eventually
at the bottom of the social scale.

    25. D. is a man who could not get along at home. He was
    continually into difficulty with his father. He always had
    ideas and schemes that his father thought foolish and he
    was never permitted to carry any of them out. He still has
    the habit of working up schemes and programs. One week he
    will be writing a play. Again he will be inventing some
    mechanical device. He has tried several different courses
    in mechanical engineering but has not completed any of them.

    26. F. has an idea that he can become a singer but he
    refuses to spend his time in the rigid and arduous training
    that would be required. He buys cheap books on voice
    culture. When he gets money enough ahead to take lessons he
    forgets his musical ambition and drinks or gambles.

    27. L. was the “simple Simon” in his home town. During the
    war he was rejected for military service so he decided to
    go to the city to work. Here he earned fair money, more
    than at home. The people at home used to tease him but
    at first he got by fairly well in Minneapolis. Later he
    went to Detroit because the fellows where he worked in
    Minneapolis used “to run him.” They used to tease him in
    Detroit and he left two jobs there on that account. He is
    the type of person that invites teasing. He puts himself
    in the way of it but resents it if it reaches a certain
    extent. With the slack season in industry in 1921-22 he had
    a hard time to get along but he would not return home.

    28. H. is a man who thinks that he is getting the worst of
    every deal he has with others. He says that at home he was
    imposed on by his people so he left. He is always on the
    lookout for plots directed against him. If he is working
    along with others on a job and a bad piece of work falls
    his way he concludes that it happened purposely. However,
    he is ready to gloat over favors. His best efforts are made
    to ingratiate himself with others. Whenever he leaves a
    place, he does so with bitterness in his heart. He usually
    keeps his grudge to himself.

    29. M. is a good worker but a transient. He behaves well
    when sober but he becomes quarrelsome when drunk. If he is
    not discharged because of a drunken scene he usually quits
    voluntarily because he feels ashamed of himself. He argues
    a great deal when sober but he has the ability to control
    himself. His periods of drunkenness last from a week to ten
    days and are staged whenever his finances will permit. Not
    infrequently he is arrested while drunk.


CRISES IN THE LIFE OF THE PERSON

Crises in the life of the person, as family conflict, for example,
the feeling of failure, disgrace or embarrassment, the fear of
punishment for the commission of an offense may cause a man to
desert home and community. With the severance of family and social
ties the man or boy is all the more likely to drift aimlessly from
place to place, and at last perhaps find himself permanently in the
group of migratory and casual laborers.

Conflict at home forces many men and boys into the group of
homeless men. Not infrequently boys run away from home because of
difficulties with their people. One youth says that his father
tried to tell him “where to head in at,” and he “wouldn’t stand for
it.” Another boy could not get along with his brothers who were
older than he. They tried to “boss” him.

Many men in Hobohemia manifest no inclination to wander but are
as completely cut off from their home associations as are the
migrants. These men of the “home guard” types may have had trouble
with their parents or with their wives.

    30. H. claims that he was married and that he held a job
    as traveling salesman. He maintained an apartment on the
    South Side where he left his wife while he was away on
    trips through the Southwest. His story is that his wife
    was untrue to him and he divorced her. This experience
    “broke him up” so that he quit his job and went West where
    he remained a year. Today he loafs on West Madison Street
    and blames his wife for his failure in life. The divorced
    wife’s story learned from other sources lays considerable
    of the responsibility at his feet. This much of his story
    is true: he was not in the tramp class before he married.
    The circumstances surrounding his home trouble were
    unfortunate and were partly due to the shortcomings of both.

    31. G. lays the blame for his condition upon family
    trouble. He has not lived with his wife for nine years.
    They are not divorced because he and his wife are both
    Catholic and do not believe in it. He worked most of the
    time before their separation and claims that he owned his
    own home which is now in the possession of his wife. What
    his wife is doing now he does not know nor does he know
    anything about their child. He is content where he is;
    doing just enough work to pay expenses.

Deaths in a family will sometimes turn a person out into the world
and he may drift into the hobo and tramp group.

    32. M.’s father died when he was about six years old. Five
    years later his mother died. Kindly neighbors took him in
    charge by turns. It seemed to him that wherever he was the
    people would parade the fact that they were taking “care
    of” someone else’s child. It was charity. He stayed with
    several different families. Some of them he liked and
    others he didn’t. Some sent him to school and others didn’t
    seem to care what became of him. More than one family
    tried to pass him on to others on the ground that it was
    too much of an expense. When he began to be old enough to
    work then they all wanted him. He hated it all so he left
    the country. He came through Chicago on his way to Texas.
    (A sixteen-year-old boy and small for his age.) He said he
    had a brother in the cavalry who was stationed in Texas.
    The brother tried to persuade him to wait till he had saved
    enough money to pay his fare but he preferred to take his
    “chances,” so he was “beating his way.”

Embarrassing situations often make it easier to leave home than
to remain and face the criticism or sympathy of the public.
On the road, a man is more or less immune to attacks upon his
self-consciousness and self-respect, for his relations to other
persons are loose and transient and he has no status to maintain.
The opposite is true in his home town where his every act is known.

    33. One man who works in and near Chicago claims that
    he was put on the “bum” by a woman. He was to have been
    married to this girl and prepared for the wedding in good
    faith. A few days before the ceremony she ran away with
    another man. He was laughed at by his friends and rather
    than remain and for a long time be the butt of the joke, he
    packed his things and has not been back since. His home is
    in a country town in southern Illinois, and although he has
    been near the place several times during the past ten years
    he has never returned.

    34. F. is another case of injured pride. For some boyish
    prank he had been sent to the reformatory for three years.
    Upon his release he was given transportation home and
    started in high glee. His people met him at the station
    and took him home. Although he was treated well he felt
    uncomfortable. “They treated me good because I happened
    to be a part of the family. I felt like I didn’t belong
    there, so as soon as it got dark I skinned out. They write
    to me to come back and maybe I will after a while.” He is
    an average man of the migratory worker type. He comes to
    Chicago when he has money and when he is “broke” he goes
    out on some job and is not seen for two or three months or
    until he has another stake. He gets arrested now and then
    but only on petty offenses that he commits while drunk.

The following case shows that a sense of failure and fear of
ridicule may force a boy to leave his home community:

    35. This lad was working in a grocery store at the age of
    twelve. He became dissatisfied with the job and asked for
    a raise which was denied. He was somewhat embarrassed at
    being set back and lest he be laughed at for staying on
    after making a demand he quit. Someone asked him what he
    would do since there was no other job to be had. This was
    really another challenge and he met it with the reply that
    Podunk was not the only place to work. He left home to make
    his bluff good.

    He met with many reverses. He was small and no one wanted
    to hire him. So he begged and he “managed.” Sometimes he
    did odd jobs, but he didn’t go home. Other people had left
    home and come back beaten and had to take the “horse laugh”
    and he did not admire any of them. He couldn’t think of
    going back unless he had more money than when he left and
    better clothes, so he went on. He learned to like the road
    and he traveled over the country for about two years before
    he went back. When he did return he was in a position to
    talk. He had some money to spend, he had seen the country.
    He had been East and West, and he had been to sea. He had
    something to talk about. But he only remained in his home
    town long enough to stir up admiration and envy and he
    was off again. He is still under twenty-one and is still
    traveling in response to the same urge.

Other individuals began their migratory career by fleeing from the
consequences of some offense. If the offense is of such gravity
that the consequences seem to outweigh the advantages of remaining
in the community, then flight is the natural course.

    36. A. states that he left home to avoid the wrath of his
    father. He had been to town with the horse and buggy. On
    the way home the horse became excited, left the road, ran
    into a post, and broke the buggy. His father was absent
    for the day and he and his brothers tried to repair the
    buggy so that the parent would not suspect. It could not
    be fixed and they all knew what the consequences would be.
    The brothers helped him pack up and he ran away. He did not
    return for three years; then it was only to remain for a
    short time.

    37. Red left home because he feared the consequences of an
    affair with a woman. He claims that the woman had relations
    with another man and that he was not sure that the child
    would be his. The other man was a Mexican and Red says that
    he has heard since that the child is a dark-skinned little
    fellow and that eases his conscience.

    38. O. could not get along with his wife. They were
    divorced and he was ordered by the court to pay her thirty
    dollars a month. He paid it faithfully for a couple of
    months and then failed for a month or two. She had him
    arrested and he agreed to make good. As soon as he was
    released, he fled the country. He has been living in and
    about Chicago the past year. It has been two or three years
    since he left home. He has not communicated with his home
    because he fears arrest. His alimony bill has mounted to
    terrifying proportions. He hopes that his wife is married
    again.


RACIAL AND NATIONAL DISCRIMINATION

In certain situations racial or national traits cause
discrimination in employment and so result in a descent from
regular to casual work. So far as selection for employment is
adverse to the Negroes they tend to recruit the ranks of homeless
men. During the war, a much higher proportion of foreign-born
of German origin was observed on West Madison Street than had
previously been reported. Interviews with certain Russians on
the “main stem” in the spring of 1922 suggest that the public
disapproval of Bolshevism had reacted unfavorably on the chances
for employment of this nationality in the United States.


WANDERLUST

Wanderlust is a longing for new experience. It is the yearning to
see new places, to feel the thrill of new sensations, to encounter
new situations, and to know the freedom and the exhilaration of
being a stranger.

    In its pure form the desire for new experience results
    in motion, change, danger, instability, social
    irresponsibility. It is to be seen in simple form in the
    prowling and meddling activities of the child, and the
    love of adventure and travel in the boy and man. It ranges
    in moral quality from the pursuit of game and the pursuit
    of pleasure to the pursuit of knowledge and the pursuit
    of ideals. It is found equally in the vagabond and the
    scientific explorer.[23]

    Even those of us who seem to have settled down quite
    comfortably to exacting routine are sometimes intolerably
    stirred by the wanderlust. It comes upon us unaware; and
    often we cut away and go. There are automobiles, railway
    cars, steamships, airplanes--serving little other purpose,
    really, than the gratification of wander tendencies.
    Usually we do not say it so openly of course; we make good
    reasons for travelling, for not “staying put.” Many a
    business man has developed a perfect technique for escaping
    from his rut; many a laborer has invented a physical
    inability to work steadily that lets him out into the
    drifting current when monotony sets in on the job. Life is
    full of these moral side doors; but we need not view man’s
    rationalizing power cynically, merely understandingly.
    The escapes he contrives are a damaging critique of the
    modern mode of life. We may infer from them the superior
    adjustments we strive so blindly toward.[24]

Wanderlust is a wish of the person. Its expression in the form of
tramping, “making” the harvest field, roughing it, pioneering, is a
social pattern of American life. The fascination of the life of the
road is, in part, disclosed in the following case-study.

    39. S. who is 19 years old has been a wanderer for nearly
    four years. He does not know why he travels except that
    he gets thrills out of it. He says that there is nothing
    that he likes better than to catch trains out of a town
    where the police are rather strict. When he can outwit
    the “bulls” he gets a “kick” out of it. He would rather
    ride the passenger trains than the freights because he can
    “get there” quicker, and then, they are watched closer. He
    likes to tell of making “big jumps” on passenger trains as
    from the coast to Chicago in five days, or from Chicago to
    Kansas City or Omaha in one day. He only works long enough
    in one place to get a “grubstake,” or enough money to live
    on for a few days.

    He says that he knows that he would be better off if he
    would settle down at some steady job. He has tried it a
    few times but the monotony of it made him so restless that
    he had to leave. He thinks that he might be able to stay
    in a city if he had a steady job and he agreed to take
    such a job if he could get it. Jobs were scarce and the
    investigator promised to take him to the United Charities
    to help him get placed.

    The following morning the lad came to the office with
    another boy with whom he had become acquainted that
    morning. He had changed his mind about that job but wanted
    to thank everyone who had taken an interest in him. He and
    his “buddy” were going to “make the Harvest.”

The longing to see the world is often stimulated in a boy by reason
of the experiences of some relative or friend whom he admires. One
boy went on the road because of the influence his uncle had upon
him. The uncle did not advise him to leave home, in fact, he did
not know very much about the boy. But the uncle had been to war,
and had traveled in China, Alaska, and South America. The boy had
to go on the road to become disillusioned. He now knows that his
uncle is a plain tramp and that he himself has become a hobo.

    40. W. left home when he was sixteen. He was the oldest of
    a family of five boys and three girls. His father owned a
    farm in Michigan and was usually hard pressed for means.
    He needed help at home and so W. was kept out of school a
    great deal. When he did go to school it was hard for him
    to learn. When the father saw that the younger boys were
    passing W. in school he decided that it was time wasted to
    send W. to school. W. was big for his age and the father
    imposed more work on him than on the other boys who were
    smaller. W. felt that he was not getting a square deal so
    he ran away.

    He remained away a year before he dared to write. One
    reason he did not write sooner was because he was not
    earning much money, and the other reason was that he
    feared his father would hunt him down and force him to
    return. When he felt secure he wrote more frequently and
    most of his letters were boastful. He told of prospering
    and he moved from place to place often to show the other
    children at home that he could go and come as he pleased.
    He traveled in different parts of the country and from each
    part he would write painting his experiences in a rosy hue.

    He succeeded in stirring up unrest in the hearts of the
    other boys who left home one by one. In about two years N.
    followed W. L. soon began to feel that he too could make
    “his way” so he left. All five of the boys left home before
    they were sixteen. Each felt that he was wasting his time
    about home while the other boys were seeing the country and
    making good money. Only one of the five boys returned home.
    The others roamed the country following migratory work.
    One married but only lived with his wife a year and then
    deserted her.

    The father always blamed W. for leading the boys away. W.
    used to send presents to the other members of the family.
    He used to send the mother money now and then. He was the
    idol of the rest of the children and they left home to
    follow in his footsteps.

A visit to the “jungles” at the junction of any railroad or at the
outskirts of any large city or even small town reveals the extent
to which the tramp is consciously and enthusiastically imitated.
Around the camp fire watching the coffee pot boil or the “mulligan”
cook, the boys are often found mingling with the tramps and
listening in on their stories of adventure.

To boys the tramp is not a problem, but a human being, and an
interesting one at that. He has no cares nor burdens to hold him
down. All he is concerned with is to live and seek adventure, and
in this he personifies the heroes in the stories the boys have
read. Tramp life is an invitation to a career of varied experiences
and adventures. All this is a promise and a challenge. A promise
that all the wishes that disturb him shall be fulfilled and a
challenge to leave the work-a-day world that he is bound to.


THE MULTIPLE EXPLANATION

No single cause can be found to explain how a man may be reduced
to the status of a homeless, migratory, and casual laborer. In
any given case all of the factors analyzed above may have entered
into the process of economic and social degradation. Indeed, the
conjunction of several of these causes is necessary to explain the
extent and the nature of the casualization and mobility of labor
in this country. Unemployment and seasonal work disorganize the
routine of life of the individual worker and destroy regular habits
of work but at the same time thousands of boys and men moved by
wanderlust are eager to escape the monotony of stable and settled
existence. No matter how perfect a social and economic order may
yet be devised there will always remain certain “misfits,” the
industrially inadequate, the unstable and egocentric, who will ever
tend to conflict with constituted authority in industry, society,
and government.

The description, however, of these causes of vagabondage--(_a_)
unemployment and seasonal work, (_b_) industrial inadequacy, (_c_)
defects of personality, (_d_) crises in the life of the person,
(_e_) racial or national discrimination, (_f_) wanderlust--is a
necessary condition to any solution of the problem of the homeless
man. A program is remedial and not preventive that does not grapple
with the fundamental causes here revealed. These causes have roots
at the very core of our American life, in our industrial system,
in education, cultural and vocational, in family relations, in the
problems of racial and immigrant adjustment, and in the opportunity
offered or denied by society for the expression of the wishes of
the person.


FOOTNOTES:

[13] _Final Report of the Commission on Industrial Relations_
(1915), pp. 163-64.

[14] B. Seebohm Rountree, _Unemployment; A Social Study_. London,
1911. See especially chap. vii, “Detailed Descriptions of Selected
Families,” where the demoralizing effects of unemployment upon the
laborer are clearly indicated.

[15] _Final Report of the Commission on Industrial Relations_
(1915), p. 157.

[16] See Bibliography, p. 287.

[17] _The Individual Delinquent_, pp. 776-79.

[18] _One Thousand Homeless Men_, pp. 88-89.

[19] L. M. Terman, _The Measurement of Intelligence_, p. 18.

[20] Rudolph Pintner and H. A. Toops, “Mental Tests of Unemployed
Men,” _Journal of Applied Psychology_, I (1917), 325-41; II (1918),
15-25.

[21] “Unemployment and Feeble-mindedness,” _Journal of
Delinquency_, II (1917), 59-73.

[22] Herman M. Adler, “Unemployment and Personality--A Study of
Psychopathic Cases,” _Mental Hygiene_, I (January, 1917), 16-24.

[23] R. E. Park and H. A. Miller, _Old World Traits Transplanted_,
p. 27.

[24] Rexford Tugwell, “The Gypsy Strain,” _Pacific Review_, pp.
177-78.




CHAPTER VI

THE HOBO AND THE TRAMP


The term “homeless man” was used by Mrs. Alice W. Solenberger
in her study of 1,000 cases in Chicago to include all types of
unattached men, tramps, hobos, bums, and the other nameless
varieties of the “go-abouts.”

    Almost all “tramps” are “homeless men” but by no means
    are all homeless men tramps. The homeless man may be an
    able-bodied workman without a family; he may be a runaway
    boy, a consumptive temporarily stranded on his way to a
    health resort, an irresponsible, feeble-minded, or insane
    man, but unless he is also a professional wanderer he is
    not a “tramp.”[25]

There is no better term at hand than “homeless men” by which the
men who inhabit Hobohemia may be characterized. Dr. Ben L. Reitman,
who has himself traveled as a tramp, in the sense in which he uses
the word, has defined the three principal types of the hobo. He
says:

    There are three types of the genus vagrant: the hobo, the
    tramp, and the bum. The hobo works and wanders, the tramp
    dreams and wanders and the bum drinks and wanders.

St. John Tucker, formerly the president of the “Hobo College” in
Chicago, gives the same classification with a slightly different
definition:

    A hobo is a migratory worker. A tramp is a migratory
    non-worker. A bum is a stationary non-worker. Upon the
    labor of the _migratory worker_ all the basic industries
    depend. He goes forth from the crowded slavemarkets to
    hew the forests, build and repair the railroads, tunnel
    mountains and build ravines. His is the labor that harvests
    the wheat in the fall and cuts the ice in the winter. All
    of these are hobos.

M. Kuhn, of St. Louis (and elsewhere), a migrant, a writer, and,
according to his own definition, a hobo, in a pamphlet entitled
“The Hobo Problem” gives a fairly representative statement of the
homeless man’s explanation of his lot.

    The hobo is a seasonal, transient, migratory worker of
    either sex. Being a seasonal worker he is necessarily
    idle much of the time; being transient, he is necessarily
    homeless. He is detached from the soil and the fireside.
    By the nature of his work and not by his own will, he is
    precluded from establishing a home and rearing a family.
    Sex, poverty, habits and degree of skill have nothing
    whatever to do with classifying individuals as hobos; the
    character of his work does that.

    There are individuals not hobos who pose as such. They are
    enabled to do this for two reasons: first, hobos have no
    organization by which they can expose the impostor; second,
    the frauds are encouraged and made possible by organized
    and private charity. The hobo class, therefore, is unable
    to rid itself of this extremely undesirable element. With
    organization it can and will be done even if charity, which
    is strongly opposed by the hobo class, is not abolished.

Nicholas Klein, president of the “Hobo College” and attorney and
adviser to James Eads How, the so-called hobo millionaire, who
finances the “Hobo College,” says:

    A hobo is one who travels in search of work, the migratory
    worker who must go about to find employment. Workers of
    that sort pick our berries, fruit, hops, and help to
    harvest the crops on the western farms. They follow the
    seasons around giving their time to farms in spring,
    summer, and autumn, and ending up in the ice fields in
    winter. We could not get in our crops without them for the
    hobo is the boy who does the work. The name originated from
    the words “hoe-boy” plainly derived from work on the farm.
    A tramp is one who travels but does not work, and a bum is
    a man who stays in one place and does not work. Between
    these grades there is a great gulf of social distinction.
    Don’t get tramps and hobos mixed. They are quite
    different in many respects. The chief difference being
    that the hobo will work and the tramp will not, preferring
    to live on what he can pick up at back doors as he makes
    his way through the country.[26]

[Illustration: LEADERS IN THE EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENT AMONG THE HOBOS]

[Illustration: A POPULAR RESORT IN HOBOHEMIA]

Roger Payne, A.B. and LL.B., who has taken upon himself the title
“hobo philosopher,” sees only one type of the wanderer and that is
the hobo. The hobo to him is a migratory worker. If he works but
does not migrate, or if he migrates but does not work, he is not a
hobo. All others are either tramps or bums. He makes no distinction
between them. The hobo, foot-loose and care-free, leads, Mr. Payne
thinks, the ideal life.

Although we cannot draw lines closely, it seems clear that there
are at least five types of homeless men: (_a_) the seasonal
worker,[27] (_b_) the transient or occasional worker or hobo,
(_c_) the tramp who “dreams and wanders” and works only when it
is convenient, (_d_) the bum who seldom wanders and seldom works,
and (_e_) the home guard who lives in Hobohemia and does not leave
town.[28]


THE SEASONAL WORKER

Seasonal workers are men who have definite occupations in different
seasons. The yearly circuit of their labors takes them about the
country, often into several different states. These men may work
in the clothing industries during cold weather but in summer are
employed at odd jobs; or they may have steady work in summer and
do odd jobs in winter. One man picks fruit in summer and works
as a machinist in winter. He does not spend his summers in the
same state nor his winters in the same city but follows those two
occupations throughout the year.

    41. Bill S. is a Scotchman and a seasonal worker. During
    the winter he is usually in Chicago. He works as a
    practical nurse. He is efficient and well liked by his
    patients and a steady worker during the winter. In summer
    he quits and goes to the harvest fields or works on a
    construction job. Since leaving his winter job (March to
    October, 1922) he has had several jobs out of Chicago none
    of which lasted more than a week or two. Between times he
    loafs on West Madison Street. He does not drink. He is well
    behaved. Seldom dresses up. When last heard of he was in
    Kansas City, Missouri, where he thought he would spend the
    winter.

    42. Jack M. works on the lake boats during the sailing
    season. When the boats tie up for the winter he tries to
    get into the factories, or he goes to the woods. Sometimes
    during the tie-up he takes a notion to travel and goes West
    or South to while away the time. He has just returned from
    a trip East and South where he has been “seeking work” and
    “killing time” a week or so before the season opened. He
    has already signed up for the summer. He is loafing and
    lodging in the meanwhile on West Madison and South State
    streets.

The seasonal worker has a particular kind of work that he follows
somewhere at least part of the year. The hotels of Hobohemia are a
winter resort for many of these seasonal workers whose schedule is
relatively fixed and habitudinal. Some of these who return to the
city regularly every winter come with money. In that case, they
do not work until next season. Others return without money. They
have some kind of work which they follow in the winter. The hobo,
proper, is a transient worker without a program.


THE HOBO

A hobo is a migratory worker in the strict sense of the word. He
works at whatever is convenient in the mills, the shops, the mines,
the harvests, or any of the numerous jobs that come his way without
regard for the times or the seasons. The range of his activities is
nation wide and with many hobos it is international. He may cross
a continent between jobs. He may be able in one year to function
in several industries. He may have a trade or even a profession.
He may even be reduced to begging between jobs, but his living is
primarily gained by work and that puts him in the hobo class.

    43. E. J. is a carpenter. He was at one time a good workman
    but due to drink and dissipation he has lost his ability to
    do fine work and has been reduced to the status of a rough
    carpenter. At present he follows bridge work and concrete
    form work. Sometimes he tries his hand at plain house
    carpentry but due to the fact that he moves about so much,
    he has lost or disposed of many of his tools. A spree lasts
    about three weeks and he has about three or four a year.
    Sometimes he travels without his kit and does not work
    at his trade. He never drinks while working. It is only
    when he goes to town to spend his vacations that he gets
    drunk. He is restless and uncomfortable and does not know
    how to occupy his mind when he is in town and sober. He is
    fifty-six years old. He never married and never has had a
    home since he was a boy.

    44. M. P. is interesting because he has a trade but does
    not follow it seasonally. He is a plasterer and he seems to
    be a good one. In his youth he learned the trade of stone
    mason. He came to this country from England in his twenties
    and he is past fifty now. He married in Pennsylvania where
    his wife died and where a daughter still lives. He became
    a wanderer and for many years did not work at his trade.
    He did various kinds of work as the notion came to him. As
    he is getting older he is less inclined to wander and he
    makes fewer excursions into other lines of work outside his
    trade. During the past year he has not left Chicago and
    he has done little other than to work as a plasterer. He
    lives in the Hobohemian areas and is able to get along two
    or three weeks on a few days’ work. He seldom works more
    than a week at a time. He takes a lively interest in the
    hobo movement of the city and has been actively engaged in
    the “Hobo College.” Recently he won a lot in a raffle. It
    is located in the suburbs of the city. During the summer
    (1922) he had a camp out there and he and his friends from
    Madison Street spent considerable time in his private
    “jungle.”

The hobo group comprises the bulk of the migratory workers, in
fact, nearly all migrants in transit are hobos of one sort or
other. Hobos have a romantic place in our history. From the
beginning they have been numbered among the pioneers. They have
played an important rôle in reclaiming the desert and in subduing
the trackless forests. They have contributed more to the open,
frank, and adventurous spirit of the Old West than we are always
willing to admit. They are, as it were, belated frontiersmen.
Their presence in the migrant group has been the chief factor in
making the American vagabond class different from that of any other
country.

It is difficult to classify the numerous types of hobos. The
habits, type of work, the routes of travel, etc., seem to differ
with each individual. Some live more parasitic lives than others.
Some never beg or get drunk, while others never come to town
without getting intoxicated and being robbed or arrested, and
perhaps beaten. One common characteristic of the hobo, however, is
that he works. He usually has horny hands and a worker’s mien. He
aims to live by his labor.

As there are different types of homeless men, so different varieties
of this particular brand, the hobo, may be differentiated. A part
of the hobo group known as “harvest hands” follows the harvest and
other agricultural occupations of seasonal nature. Another segment of
the group works in the lumber woods and are known as “lumber jacks”
or “timber beasts.” A third group is employed in construction and
maintenance work. A “gandy dancer” is a man who works on the railroad
track tamping ties. If he works on the section he may be called a
“snipe” or a “jerry.”

    A “skinner” is a man who drives horses or mules.

    A “mucker” or a “shovel stiff” is a man who does manual
    labor on construction jobs.

    A “rust eater” usually works on extra-gangs or track-laying
    jobs; handles steel.

    A “dino” is a man who works with and handles dynamite.

    A “splinter-belly” is a man who does rough carpenter work
    or bridge work.

    A “cotton glaumer” picks cotton, an “apple knocker” picks
    apples and other fruit.

    A “beach comber” is a plain sailor, of all men the most
    transient.

For every vocation that is open to the migratory worker there is
some such characteristic name. In the West the hobo usually carries
a bundle in which he has a bed, some extra clothes, and a little
food. The man who carries such a bundle is usually known as a
“bundle stiff” or “bundle bum.” The modern hobo does not carry a
bundle because it hinders him when he wishes to travel fast. It is
the old man who went West “to grow up with the country” who still
clings to his blanket roll.


THE TRAMP

While the word “tramp” is often used as a blanket term applied
to all classes of homeless and potentially vagrant or transient
types, it is here used in a stricter sense to designate a smaller
group. He is usually thought of, by those familiar with his natural
history, as an able-bodied individual who has the romantic passion
to see the country and to gain new experience without work. He is
a specialist at “getting by.” He is the type that Josiah Flynt
had in mind when he wrote his book, _Tramping with Tramps_. He
is typically neither a drunkard nor a bum, but an easy-going
individual who lives from hand to mouth for the mere joy of living.

    45. X. began life as a half orphan. Later he was adopted
    and taken from Ohio to South Dakota. In his early teens he
    grew restive at home and left. But for brief seasons he has
    been away ever since and he is now past forty-five. He has
    traveled far and wide since but has worked little. He makes
    his living by selling joke books and song books. Sometimes
    he tries his hand at selling little articles from door to
    door. A few years ago he wrote a booklet on an economic
    subject and sold several thousand copies. During the winter
    of 1921-22 he sold the _Hobo News_ each month. He is able
    to make a living this way. Any extra money he has he
    loses at the gambling tables. He spends his leisure time
    attempting to write songs or poetry. He knows a great deal
    about publishers but it is all information that has come in
    his efforts to sell his songs. He claims that he has been
    working for several years on a novel. He offered his work
    for inspection. He tries to lead the hero through all the
    places that he has visited and the hero comes in contact
    with many of the things he has seen or experienced in many
    cities but nowhere does his hero work. He enjoys life just
    as X. endeavors to do now. During the summer (1922) he has
    taken several “vacations” in the country for a week or more
    at the time.

    46. C. is twenty-five years old. His home is in New York
    but he has not been home for more than ten years. He
    introduced himself to the “Hobo College” early in the
    spring of 1922 as “B-2.” This name he assumed upon the
    conviction that he is the successor of “A-1,” the famous
    tramp. He said that he had read “A-1’s” books and although
    he did not agree in every respect, yet he thought that
    “A-1” was the greatest of tramp writers. “B-2” claimed
    that he had ridden on every railroad in the United States.
    His evidence of travel was a book of postoffice stamps.
    When he comes to a town he goes to the postoffice and
    requests the postmaster to stamp his book much as letters
    are stamped. Another hobby he has is to go to the leading
    newspapers and endeavor to sell a write-up. He carries an
    accumulation of clippings. He has an assortment of flashy
    stories that take well with newspaper men. He claims that
    he has been pursued by bloodhounds in the South, that he
    has been arrested many times for vagrancy, that he is the
    only man who has beat his way on the Pikes Peak Railroad.
    He always carries a blanket and many other things that
    class him among wanderers as an individualist. He has been
    in the Army, saw action and was in the Army of Occupation.
    He does not seek work. He says his leisure time can be
    better spent. He carries a vest pocket kodak. He says that
    the pictures and notes he takes will some day be published.

The distinctions between the seasonal worker, the hobo, and the
tramp, while important, are not hard and fast. The seasonal worker
may descend into the ranks of the hobos, and a hobo may sink to the
level of the tramp. But the knowledge of this tendency to pass from
one migratory group to another is significant for any program that
attempts to deal with the homeless man. Significant, also, but not
sufficiently recognized, is the difference between these migratory
types and the stationary types of homeless men, the “home guard”
and the “bum.”


FOOTNOTES:

[25] _One Thousand Homeless Men_, p. 209.

[26] _Dearborn Independent_, March 18, 1922.

[27] The seasonal worker may be regarded also as the upper-class
hobo.

[28] The first three types of homeless men are described in this
chapter; the last two types are considered in chapter vii.




CHAPTER VII

THE HOME GUARD AND THE BUM


The seasonal worker, the hobo, and the tramp are migratory types;
the home guard and the bum are relatively stationary. The home
guard, like the hobo, is a casual laborer, but he works, often only
by the day, now at one and again at another of the multitude of
unskilled jobs in the city. The bum, like the tramp, is unwilling
to work and lives by begging and petty thieving.


THE HOME GUARD

Nearly if not quite one-half of the homeless men in Hobohemia are
stationary casual laborers. These men, contemptuously termed “home
guards” by the hobo and the tramp, work regularly or irregularly
at unskilled work, day labor, and odd jobs. They live or at least
spend their leisure time on the “main stem,” but seldom come to
the attention of the charities or the police, or ask alms on the
street. Many of them have lived in Chicago for years. Others after
a migratory career as hobos or tramps “settle down” to a stationary
existence. This group includes remittance men, often the “black
sheep” of families of standing in far-off communities who send them
a small regular allowance to remain away from home.

    47. L. E. was born on the West Side and at present his
    family lives in Logan Square. He is twenty-three years old
    and has been away from home a year. He claims that after
    his mother’s death he and his father could not agree. He
    immediately found his way to West Madison Street where
    he has lived since. During the winter (1921-22) he was
    converted in the Bible Rescue Mission but later he got
    drunk and would not try again. However, he used to visit
    the mission after that when he had no bed and was hungry.
    He is a teamster and works regularly though he saves no
    money. He has no decent clothing and cares for none. He
    cares only to spend his Sundays and leisure time on West
    Madison Street, where he has a few acquaintances. He
    usually returns to work Monday morning after such visits,
    sick from the moonshine whisky. His health is not good.
    Most of his teeth are decayed but he will not save money to
    get dental work done. If he has any money to spend aside
    from that wanted for booze he goes to the movies and loafs
    the time away. He also attends the Haymarket or the Star
    and Garter theaters. He left his job two or three times
    during the summer. While he was not working he slept in
    stables. He doesn’t go home nor communicate with his people.

The tendency for the casual worker to sink to the level of the bum
is illustrated by the case of “Shorty”:

    48. “Shorty” claims that he has lived in the Hobohemian
    areas on South State and West Madison streets for
    thirty-nine years. He has never lived anywhere else. He
    doesn’t care to go anywhere else. He tried married life
    a while but failed because of drink and returned to the
    “street.” Drink is still getting him into trouble. He has
    dropped down the economic scale from an occasional worker
    to the status of a bum. This summer (1922) he has been
    arrested several times, and he has served two terms at the
    House of Correction. All the arrests were for drunkenness
    and disorder. He is developing into a professional
    panhandler or beggar. During the summer he has had two or
    three jobs. Once he was at the stockyards where he claims
    to have worked steadily in the early days. Being well known
    on the “streets” he is able to get odd jobs now and then
    that give him money enough to “get by.” He has not been
    divorced from his wife. She won’t live with him and he does
    not care. He has a child twelve or thirteen years old but
    he has not seen her for several years. He does not know
    where she is. He is not interested. He spends his leisure
    time on Madison Street near Desplaines where he may be
    found almost every day standing on the corner or sitting on
    the curb talking to some other “bo.”


THE BUM

In every city there are ne’er-do-wells--men who are wholly or
partially dependent and frequently delinquent as well. The most
hopeless and the most helpless of all the homeless men is the bum,
including in this type the inveterate drunkard and drug addicts.
Old, helpless, and unemployable, these are the most pitiable and
the most repulsive types of the down-and-outs. From this class are
recruited the so-called “mission stiffs” who are so unpopular among
the Hobohemian population.

    49. L. D., forty-five years old, is a typical so-called
    “mission bum.” He has not been known to work for eight
    months. During winter he is always present in some mission.
    Once he permitted himself to be led forward and knelt
    in prayer but was put out of the same mission later for
    being drunk. He claims that he was a prize fighter in his
    youth. He has traveled a great deal but he has always been
    a drinking man. When he is sober he is morose and quiet.
    As soon as spring permitted him to sleep out he ceased to
    visit the missions.

    He has spent most of the summer on the docks along the
    river where he sleeps nights and where he has been getting
    work now and then unloading the fruit boats that ply
    between Chicago and Michigan. During the eight months he
    has been observed he has bought no new clothes. Not once
    during the summer has he left the city. He says that he
    has been in town for three years. The future seems to mean
    nothing to him. He does not worry about the coming winter.

    50. A. B. is an habitual drunkard. He migrates a great
    deal but it seems that his migrations are to escape
    tedium and monotony rather than to work. He is a little,
    hollow-chested, undersized man and he claims to be
    thirty-two. He says that his health has not been good. He
    has a work history, it seems, but it is a record of light
    jobs. He picked berries, washed dishes, peddled, but he was
    also a successful beggar. His success in begging seems to
    lie in the ability to look pitiful. He has been in but four
    or five states of the Middle West but has been in most
    of the large cities. He does not patronize the missions
    because he says he can do better begging.


OTHER TYPES OF HOMELESS MEN

Many of the terms which are epithets picturesquely describe special
types of homeless men. The popular names for the various types of
tramps and hobos are current terms that have been picked up on the
street as they pass from mouth to mouth. Some of them are new,
others are old, while all of them are in flux. Names of types are
coined by the men themselves. They serve a while and then pass out,
giving place to new and more catchy terms. Change is characteristic
of tramp terminology and tramp jargon. Words assume a different
meaning as they are extensively used, or they become too general in
their use and newer terms are invented. Many of the names by which
types are designated were at first terms of derision, but terms
seem to lose their stigma by continued use.[29]

Among tramps who seldom if ever work are those who peddle some kind
of wares or sell some kind of service.

    The Mushfaker is a man who sells his services. He may be
    a tinker, a glazier, an umbrella mender, or he may repair
    sewing machines or typewriters. Some mushfakers even
    pose as piano tuners. The mushfaker usually follows some
    occupation which permits him to sit in the shade while he
    works. Often the trade or art he plies is one that he has
    learned in a penal institution.

    The Scissor Bill is a man who carries with him tools to
    sharpen saws, knives, razors, etc. Often he pushes a
    grindstone along the street.

    Beggars among tramps are usually named with reference to
    the methods they employ.

The following classification is taken from a narrative work by
“A No. 1, The Famous Tramp,” who claims to have traveled 500,000
miles for $7.61. His books are more or less sensational and are
not popular among many tramps, because they say the incidents he
relates are overdrawn.[30]


THE RATING OF THE TRAMPS BY “A NO. 1”

  1. Pillinger              Solicited alms at stores, offices, and
                                  residences

  2. Moocher                Accosted passers-by in the street

  3. Flopper                Squatted on sidewalk in business
                                  thoroughfares

  4. Stiffy                 Simulated paralysis

  5. Dummy                  Pretends to be deaf and dumb

  6. Wires                  Peddling articles made of stolen telegraph
                                  wires

  7. Mush Faker }
                }           Umbrella mender who learned trade in penal
                }                 institution
  8. Mush Rigger}

  9. Wangy                  Disguised begging by selling shoestrings

  10. Stickers              Disguised begging by selling court plaster

  11. Timbers               Disguised begging by selling lead pencils

  12. Sticks                Train rider who lost a leg

  13. Peg                   Train rider who lost a foot

  14. Fingy or Fingers      Train rider who lost one or more fingers

  15. Blinky                Train rider who lost one or both eyes

  16. Wingy                 Train rider who lost one or both arms

  17. Mitts                 Train rider who lost one or both hands

  18. Righty                Train rider who lost right arm and leg

  19. Lefty                 Train rider who lost left arm and leg

  20. Halfy                 Train rider who lost both legs below knee

  21. Straight Crip         Actually crippled or otherwise afflicted

  22. Phoney Crip           Self-mutilated or simulating a deformity

  23. Pokey Stiff           Subsisting on handouts solely

  24. Phoney Stiff          Disposing of fraudulent jewelry

  25. Proper Stiff          Considered manual toil the acme of
                                  disgrace

  26. Gink or Gandy Stiff   Occasionally labored, a day or two at the
                                  most

  27. Alkee Stiff     }
                      }     Confirmed consumers of alcohol
  28. White Line Stiff}

  29. Rummy Stiff           Deranged intellect by habitual use of raw
                                  rum

  30. Bundle Stiff }
                   }        Carried bedding
  31. Blanket Stiff}

  32. Chronicker            Hoboed with cooking utensils

  33. Stew Bum      }
                    }
  34. Ding Bat      }
                    }
  35. Fuzzy Tail    }       The dregs of vagrantdom
                    }
  36. Grease Tail   }
                    }
  37. Jungle Buzzard}

  38. Shine or Dingy        Colored vagabond

  39. Gay Cat               Employed as scout by criminal tramps

  40. Dino or Dynamiter     Sponged food of fellow hobos

  41. Yegg                  Roving desperado

  42. Gun Moll              A dangerous woman tramp

  43. Hay Bag               A female stew bum

  44. Jocker                Taught minors to beg and crook

  45. Road Kid or Preshun   Boy held in bondage by jocker

  46. Punk                  Boy discarded by jocker

  47. Gonsil                Youth not yet adopted by jocker

The beggar is one who stands in one place. He supplicates help
by appealing to the pity of the passers-by. The moocher is an
individual who is somewhat more mobile than the beggar. He moves
about, going to the houses and asking for food, clothing, and
even money, if he can get it. The panhandler is a beggar of a more
courageous type. He hails men on the street and asks for money.
He does not fawn nor whine nor strive to arouse pity. Dr. Reitman
says: “The only difference between a moocher and a panhandler is
that the moocher goes to the back door while the panhandler goes to
the front door.”

The beggar types may also be divided into the able-bodied and the
non-able-bodied. The non-able-bodied beggars are more numerous in
the cities. They are forced, because of their handicaps, to remain
where the greatest number of people are. Some handicapped beggars,
however, are able to travel with marvelous speed over the country.
These non-able-bodied types go by different names according to
their afflictions.

    Peggy is a one-legged man. Stumpy is a legless man. Wingy
    is a man with one or both arms off. Blinky is a man with
    one or both eyes defected. A Dummy is a man who is dumb or
    deaf and dumb. Some of these types do not beg. They make a
    livelihood by peddling or working at odd jobs. A Nut is a
    man who is apparently mentally deranged.

The Hop Head is an interesting type. He is usually in a pitiful
condition, for he has small chance, living as he does, in the tramp
class, to get money to buy “dope.” Frequently he resorts to clever
and even desperate means to secure it. One type of dope fiend is
the Junkie. He uses a “gun” or needle to inject morphine or heroin.
A Sniffer is one who sniffs cocaine. More frequent than the drug
habit is the drink habit.

The tramp class has different types of predatory individuals and
petty or even major offenders:

    The Gun is a man who might be termed a first-class crook.
    He is usually a man who is living in the tramp class to
    avoid apprehension. He may be a robber or a burglar.

    The Jack Roller is a tramp who robs a fellow-tramp while he
    is drunk or asleep. There is a type of “Jack” who operates
    among the men going to and from the harvests. He may hold
    them up in a box car with a gun or in some dark alley. He
    is usually called a Hi-Jack.

Among other types of tramps are:

    The Mission Stiff who preys upon the missions. He will
    often submit to being converted for his bed and board.

    The Grafter is frequently a man who is able to exploit the
    private and public charity organizations, or the fraternal
    organizations.

    The Bad Actor is a man who has become a nuisance to his
    people and they pay him money provided he does not show
    himself in his home town.

    The Jungle Buzzard is a tramp who lives in the jungles from
    what he can beg. He will wash the pots and kettles for the
    privilege of eating what is left in them.

From the point of view of abnormal sex relations there are several
types of tramps:

    A Punk is a boy who travels about the country with a man
    known as a jocker.

    A jocker is a man who exploits boys; that is, he either
    exploits their sex or he has them steal or beg for him
    or both. The term “wolf” is often used synonymously with
    jocker.

    Fairies or Fags are men or boys who exploit sex for profit.

From the economic standpoint, migratory workers are employables and
unemployables. Between the extremes there are individuals of every
shade of employability. The ability of a man to support himself
is presumed to be related to his ability and to his opportunity
to work. The tramp problem has been interpreted first of all as
an unemployment problem, but this does not take account of the
unemployables.

First of all, there are the physically handicapped, the crippled,
the blind, the deaf, and the aged, and many who are too fat or too
puny or too sickly to do heavy manual work. Perhaps a half of the
whole group in a city like Chicago are physically handicapped to a
greater or less extent.

Second, the psychopathic types include many irresponsible and
undependable persons found in the population of Hobohemia. These
either cannot hold a job, or do not care to; they have other
ideals. They could, no doubt, do some sort of work but most of them
would have to be supervised.

To what degree homeless men are employable, to what degree some of
them are partially employable, and to what extent the whole group
is unemployable is a question that cannot be finally answered.[31]

The problem of the homeless men is variously interpreted. The
courts and the police are interested in them as offenders. As
offenders, they are generally recidivists; to the social worker and
the missionary they represent a body of men who have no purpose or
direction.

One mission worker says:

    A few of them can hold their own. They manage to work most
    of the time and pay their way, but most of them are “broke”
    some of the time and some of them are without money all the
    time. They are always making resolutions and never keeping
    them. They don’t seem to have any stiffening in their
    backbone.

However we may classify this group, the fact remains that we have
here a great body of persons, probably more than a million in the
United States,[32] and that they furnish a problem that seems to be
ever present. It is, as we shall see later, a great heterogeneous
group, unorganized and incapable of being organized. They have
been gathered from every walk of life and for a thousand different
reasons find themselves in this class. There are restless and
normal boys and young men who are out in the world for adventure
and whose stay in the class is more or less temporary; there
are able-bodied men of more mature age who are either wholly
self-supporting or are self-supporting most of the time; and there
are old men who are too aged and infirm to work and too proud to
surrender themselves to an institution. There are the physically
incapacitated and the mentally inadequate who are more or less
dependent and are likely to continue so, and there are many types
of persons who are the victims of lingering diseases or who are
addicted to drink or drugs and are not able to hold their own. All
these are making the best struggle that their wits, their strength,
and their opportunities permit to get a living. Some of them are in
the group by choice and have their minds clearly made up to climb
out, others hope to get out and strive to but never will, and yet
others never have any such visions.


RELATIVE NUMBERS OF DIFFERENT TYPES

An estimate has already been made that the number of homeless
men in Chicago range from 30,000 in the summer to 60,000 in the
winter, reaching 75,000 in periods of unemployment. Any attempt
to state the numbers of the different types of homeless men can be
little more than a guess. The difficulty is the greater because
individuals are continually passing from one group into another
group. One man in his lifetime may perchance have been, in turn,
seasonal laborer, hobo, tramp, home guard, and bum.

The public generally fails to distinguish between these types.
The group of bums, beggars, and petty thieves, often mistakenly
thought of as representative of the homeless men’s group, probably
does not exceed in Chicago a total number of 2,500. The number of
the home-guard type, the stationary casual worker, has been placed
at 30,000, the summer population of Hobohemia on the basis of the
number of permanent guests at lodging-house and hotel, and the
number of registered voters among the homeless men.[33] The number
of tramps who visit Chicago each year can only be roughly estimated
at 150,000,[34] or an average of perhaps 5,000 at any given time.
The migratory worker, including both the seasonal laborer and the
hobo, number on the average around 10,000 and reach a total of
300,000 or more persons who come to Chicago for the winter or to
secure a shipment to work outside the city. In periods of economic
depression the numbers of homeless men in Hobohemia are swollen
with men out of work, the majority of whom for the first time have
been turned adrift on the “main stem.”


FOOTNOTES:

[29] The term “punk” is an instance; it had a special meaning at
one time but is beginning to have a milder and more general use and
the term “lamb” is taking its place.

[30] _Mother Delcassee of the Hobos_, pp. 43-44.

[31] The unemployables are a more or less permanent class and do
not come and go with the seasons as do the employables. Able-bodied
employables are an effect of economic depression.

[32] Estimates vary; Lescohier (Commons, _Trade Unionism and Labor
Problems_, 133) gives the number as “more than half a million men,”
while Speek (_Annals of the American Academy_, 1917) refers to
estimates that go as high as five million.

[33] See p. 14 n.

[34] These numbers indicate the number of visits rather than the
number of separate individuals since a certain proportion of men
visit Chicago two or more times during the year.




CHAPTER VIII

WORK


The occupations that select out of the foot-loose males in our
population the most restless types are:

1. _Agriculture or crop moving._--When the crops are ready to be
garnered labor must be imported at any cost. The leading crops
in these seasonal demands are grain harvesting, corn shucking,
fruit picking, potato digging, beet topping, cotton picking,
hop picking, etc. If a man follows the wheat harvest, he may be
occupied from the middle of June when the crop is ready in Oklahoma
until November or December when the season ends with threshing in
North Dakota and Canada. Workers who pick fruit may remain in one
locality and have some kind of fruit always coming on.

2. _Building and construction work._--Next to crop moving the
building trades and construction jobs make the heaviest seasonal
demands upon the labor market. Railroad construction, ditch
digging, and similar occupations are generally discontinued during
the winter. Carpentry, masonry, brick and concrete work are only
carried on with reduced numbers of men through the cold months.

3. _Fishing._--Salmon fishing on the Pacific Coast and oyster
fishing on the Atlantic Coast are also seasonal industries. In the
fishing industry, as in other seasonal occupations, there is a
demand for experienced workers that cannot always be had when most
needed.

4. _Sheep shearing._--Sheep shearing is a skilled trade. Thousands
of men are needed to harvest the wool crop each year and these
men are forced to become migratory. The shearing season, like the
harvest, moves from border to border during a period of three or
four months. In the Southwest the sheep are sometimes clipped twice
a year. The shearing jobs are usually short but lucrative.

5. _Ice harvesting._--Formerly the ice harvest furnished employment
to an army of men for two months or more during the winter.
Ice-manufacturing plants have diminished the demand for natural
ice, though ice cutting still furnishes winter jobs for many men.

6. _Lumbering._--Working in the lumber woods and in the saw mills
is not now so much of a seasonal job as it was when the industry
centered around the Great Lakes. The industry has gone West or
over the border into Canada, where, with the longer winter season
and improved facilities, it operates almost all year. It is not
necessary in Washington, Oregon, and California to wait for the
snow to begin work in the woods as in Michigan and Wisconsin in the
early days.

Certain occupations not essentially seasonal have a tendency to
contribute to migrancy. In many metal mines a man’s health will not
permit him to work long. He leaves and goes into some other mine in
the same or a different district where the danger is not present. A
miner tends to become a migrant for the sake of his health. There
are other industries in which hazards exist that force workers to
become transient.

The American hobo has been a great pioneer. New mining camps, oil
booms, the building of a town in a few weeks, or any mushroom
development utilizes a great many transient workers. After a
flood, a fire, or an earthquake, there is a great demand for labor.
The migratory worker is always ready to respond. It is his life,
in which he finds variety and experience and, last but not least,
something to talk about.


JOB HUNTING AMONG THE CASUAL WORKERS

In seasonal and casual work, as in all types of industry, a process
of selection takes place. Great numbers of men are attracted into
seasonal occupations because of the good wages offered. But only
those remain who are content to migrate from one locality to
another in response to the demands for labor. The average man soon
realizes that in the course of a year seasonal work does not pay
even if fabulous wages are received for short-lived jobs. The man
who continues as a migratory worker is likely, therefore, to be a
person who is either unable to find or unable to hold a permanent
job. Some workers become restless after a few weeks or months in
one place. Seasonal and casual work seems to have selected out
these restless types and made hobos of them.

Migratory workers have a certain body of traditions: they know
how to get work; what kind of work to look for; when to look for
certain kinds of work, and where certain work may be found. They
fall in with the seasonal migration of workers and drift into
certain localities to do certain jobs; to the potato fields, the
fruit picking, the wheat harvest.

The hobo worker finds his way to out-of-town jobs more often than
to city work. Upon leaving an out-of-town job he is likely to
return to the city in order to locate another job out of the city
or even out of the state. This tendency of the foot-loose worker
to drift into the city has turned the attention of the employer to
the city whenever he needed help. Both the worker and the employer
have been attracted to the city in an effort to solve their labor
difficulties. Intermediate agencies spring up to bring together
the jobless man and the man with jobs to offer. Employment agents,
congregating in the Hobohemian sections of the city, convert those
areas into labor markets.

Chicago is probably the greatest labor exchange for the migratory
worker in the United States, if not in the world. Probably no other
city furnishes more men for railroad work. In days past, when so
many new railroads were being built, there were great demands
for men in the West, and it was not uncommon to get a 1,000-mile
shipment any time in the year. One is still able to secure free
shipments of from 400 to 600 miles.

There are more than 200 private employment agencies in Chicago.
There were, on August 14, 1922, 39 licensed private agencies of
the type patronized by the homeless man. Eighteen of these were on
Canal Street, thirteen were on West Madison Street, and the rest in
close proximity to that area. In addition to these there are many
agencies not operating on a commission basis which hire men for a
private corporation and are maintained by that corporation. As such
they are not licensed nor does the law affect them.

No figures are at hand to show how many men these private agencies
place during the year. Their records are not merely inadequate;
they are a joke. In fact, few of them keep records that list all
applicants, all men placed, jobs registered, etc., though the state
law definitely declares that this must be done.

The inclusion of the non-fee-collecting agencies will raise the
number from 39 to over 50. If each agency sends out, at a low
estimate, 10 men a day, and if each operates 300 days a year, a
total of 150,000 men are placed in jobs annually. Over 57,000
men in 1921-22 were placed by the free employment agency. Many
of these homeless men have access to other private agencies than
those situated on the “stem,” and often they prefer to go to such
agencies. If 100 of these agencies furnished jobs to 2 homeless
men a day for 300 days a year, we would have an additional 60,000.
About 250,000 homeless men pass through the Chicago employment
agencies every year.

Employment agencies fall into two classes--the public, or those
operated by the federal government, the state, or the municipality
and those conducted under private management. The private agency is
the pioneer. It was not only the outgrowth of a certain condition
in the labor market but it was the reason for the creation of the
public employment bureau.


PRIVATE EMPLOYMENT AGENCIES

The idea is becoming general that employment offices have a
social responsibility. They have duties to the applicants, to the
employers, and to the public that are more than economic; more than
a business of selling jobs to jobless men. It is a responsibility
that is not imposed upon the ordinary business man and that has no
prominent place in the code of business ethics.

The private employment agencies that cater to the homeless men
are chiefly located on the West Side. The 1919-20 _Report of the
Illinois Department of Labor_[35] shows that during that period
there were 295 licensed private employment agencies in Chicago. As
we noted above, about fifty of these serve the homeless men. Most
of these fifty agencies are located along Canal Street opposite the
Union Depot, or along Madison Street between the Chicago River and
Halsted Street. Some of these operate the year round, while others
come and go with the seasons, opening up in prosperous times and
going out of existence when the demand for labor falls.

A few of the private agencies are fairly well equipped; that is,
they have desks, counters, telephone, chairs or benches, and a
waiting-room which in cold weather is kept warm for the patrons.
Others, the majority, have very little equipment, perhaps a chair
and a table in a single, bare room. They keep no books other than
what they carry in their pockets. For the average small labor agent
an office is only used as a place to hang the license. He gets his
patrons by standing on the street and soliciting. The other private
agents are playing the rôle of man catcher, and he must do the same
if he would succeed.

There are two types of private labor agencies--the commission
agencies, and the boarding or commissary agencies. The commission
agency is the pioneer job-selling institution which survives by
charging a fee to the employer who seeks workers, or by charging
a fee to the applicants, or by charging both. Usually they charge
both the applicant and the employer, and formerly their prices
were governed by the demand for jobs, on the one hand, and for
workers, on the other. (If the competition is for workers they can
raise the price charged the employer. If jobs are scarce they can
raise the price charged the applicant.) The boarding and commissary
agency charge no fee for the job. Their profit is made in keeping
the boarding-house for the men they hire.

In the past it was proverbial that better shipments could be had
from the private agencies in Chicago than from any other city. A
few years ago the Chicago agencies were shipping men to all the
big jobs within a radius of from 500 to 1,000 miles, and men would
come to Chicago from 500 to 1,000 miles in one direction to be
sent by the agencies to work on some job equally as far in another
direction. These long-distance interstate shipments have been the
chief factor in the prosperity of the private agencies. High prices
were charged for the long shipments but the men were willing to
pay them whether the job was good or not in order to secure free
transportation west or south or east. The long shipments are not so
numerous at present and the high fees are no longer permitted.

    The charge sometimes made that the private agencies are
    gruff and discourteous would seem well founded if one
    failed to consider the behavior of homeless men on the
    street. These men would not pass the same judgment. They
    are used to speaking roughly to each other. They take and
    give hard blows in their dealings with the “labor shark.”
    Many men can get along much better with the blunt and
    unceremonious private agent than with the sleek, precise,
    courteous, and business-like officials in the public
    agencies. Their preference for the private agent is not for
    his gruffness or the ease with which they may approach
    him. It is mainly because he serves them better. They hate
    him for his fees but he gets the jobs they want.

The migratory worker resents the idea of being obliged to pay for
the privilege of securing work. In every program that the hobo has
advocated to change society he has made reference to the “labor
shark.” The hobo worker is never disappointed to find that the job
has been misrepresented by the agency. Nor is the agency surprised
if the applicant does not go to work when he arrives on the job.


PUBLIC EMPLOYMENT AGENCIES

The state has been forced into the employment business because of
the problems presented by private agencies. The public employment
agency in Chicago has not displaced or even seriously affected the
private employment agency. It is still only in the experimental
stage, a laboratory in which the employment problem may be studied.

There are three public free employment offices in Chicago: one at
116 North Dearborn for skilled workers, one at 105 South Jefferson
Street for unskilled workers, and one at 344 East Thirty-fifth
Street, chiefly for Negro workers. The homeless man is chiefly
interested in the Federal and State Labor Exchange located at 105
South Jefferson Street. However, the central office on Dearborn
Street, which specializes in skilled and permanent employment,
attracts two or three hundred homeless men a day, mainly from South
State Street. This office is careful not to send out on jobs “dead
line men.”

    By “dead line men” are meant men who live on Madison west
    of Canal Street. Men “living” on Clark, State, and Dearborn
    streets are more reliable and stand a better chance than
    the “dead line men” to get jobs. The firms that place
    their demand for help with the Dearborn Street bureau
    generally want references, showing place of residence and
    name of former employer. Such firms will not consider a
    West Madison Street man. The clerks sometimes advise an
    applicant to change his address to that of some relative
    in case the applicant makes a favorable impression with
    the clerk. If a man looks and speaks intelligently but is
    too ragged and dirty to send out on a job, the suggestion
    is sometimes made to clean up and spruce up a bit. The
    transformation in some cases is astonishing.[36]

Probably four or five times as many men are placed by the private
as by the public employment agencies. It seems paradoxical that
the migratory worker should patronize the private labor agent whom
he regards as an exploiter and a parasite rather than the free
employment office, yet there are good reasons for his behavior.

In the first place, the office of the public agency, although
little more than a block away, is not on the “main stem.” Strangers
in the city find their way to the “slave market” without difficulty
but may never become aware of the existence of the free employment
office. A migratory worker likes to do a little “window shopping”
before he takes a job. He likes to go along the streets reading
the red or blue or yellow placards announcing jobs and shipments
until he has made up his mind. The signs and scribbled windows of
the private agency are maneuvers of salesmanship. The public agency
has no such signs on the outside. The men must go inside to see the
blackboard upon which the jobs are written.

Further, the public agency is in duty bound, as the private agency
is not, to keep records and to get certain information from the
workers who apply for jobs, and from the employers as well. The
men who patronize these agencies dislike the “red tape” of the
public agency; they are often unwilling to be catalogued and
given a number, or go through the other formalities so necessary
for efficiency. The decisive reason why the migratory worker
patronizes the private agency is because it carries a better class
of jobs. Jobs involving interstate shipments are usually given to
the private agencies, partly because it is customary, and partly
because they know how to solicit such contracts for labor. It is
difficult for a man to get an out-of-state job in the public agency
since it is more or less local in its jurisdiction. The private
agencies attract the hobos also because they make no effort to see
that he goes to work after he has been sent. Indeed, it is to their
advantage if he does not go to work, for then they have the chance
to send another man. The public agency makes an effort to “follow
up” the applicants and to “keep tab” on them. The hobo worker shies
from such solicitous treatment.

Mr. J. J. Kenna, chief inspector of private employment agencies,
believes that the private agencies should be obliged to do
likewise. He wrote in his report to the State Department of Labor
in 1920:

    Another question that might be given consideration is the
    subject of public information pertaining to the business of
    private employment agencies for the instruction of those
    interested in labor problems and legislation, namely:

    A law compelling the agencies to furnish the State
    Department of Labor with a monthly report of the number of
    all applicants applying for positions, their ages, etc.,
    and also the number of persons brought into the State
    and sent out of the State and to where sent, the kind of
    employment for which they were engaged, etc.[37]

Nothing would do more for efficiency in the employment office
business than to compel the private agencies to keep as efficient
records as the public bureau. The spirit of competition so
prevalent in the private agencies is not present in the public
labor bureau. The public agency stands complacently on the side,
never entering the struggle to get jobs and men together. It is too
much of an office and too little of an agency.

The public and private agencies operate upon diametrically opposing
assumptions. The assumption of the public agency is that the man
once placed will remain so long as the job lasts, and a large
proportion of their jobs, especially in the Dearborn Street office,
are for “long stake” men. A man’s record, his qualifications, are
taken and he is sent out to the job with the notion that he will
work steady. The private agencies, on the contrary, assume that few
of these men will remain long on the job; that they may stay ten
days or two weeks and seldom longer than three months. The public
agency with an eye to permanency may be expected to move slowly in
placing men on jobs, whereas the private agency will send anyone to
any job that he says he can do and that he is willing to pay for.


THE CASUALIZATION OF LABOR

The casualization of labor, in spite of its concern to place men
permanently, has a tendency to attract “home guards,” i.e., men who
do not care to leave the city and yet do not want steady work. They
may work from a day to a week, then they return for another job.

The following are a few of the names taken at random from a list of
men who had been given ten or more jobs by the Federal and State
Labor Exchange between March 1, 1922, and August 15, 1922 (five and
one-half months):

                      Number  Jobs
  Wm. Mitchell         1,735   20
  Jas. Perry           5,878   10
  Tony Felk            1,195   10
  Jas. Griffin         5,811   12
  F. Mullen            5,069   21
  Ed. Moorhead           635   20
  Fred Wagoner         5,334   15
  Jas. Purl              682   16
  F. A. Murlin         5,390   13
  W. Galvin              628   18
  A. Myers             3,700   17
  W. Slavis            2,202   19
  P. Myshowi           2,408   15
  C. Carroll           4,742   16
  Jas. Lewis           3,872   16

The records show hundreds of similar instances. Some men have been
sent to as many as forty or fifty jobs during a period of six
months and few stayed with a job more than a month or two.

    John M. secured 26 jobs from the Free Employment Bureau
    in less than three months between May 4 and July 26. The
    following is the list of employers with the dates of
    employment:[38]

  1. Morris and Co.               May  4
  2. Ravina Nursery               May  6
  3. Edison Co.                   May  10
  4. Ed Katzinger                 May  18
  5. New Era Coal Co.             May  24
  6. Ravina Nursery               May  26
  7. Home Fuel Co.                May  27
  8. Morris and Co.               May  31
  9. Ill. Bell Telephone Co.      June 8
  10. Flazman Iron Co.            June 12
  11. Greenpoint Beef Co.         June 13
  12. Astrid Rosing Co.           June 14
  13. Armstrong Paint Co.         June 21
  14. Const. Mattress Co.         June 22
  15. Armour Co.                  June 26
  16. Oxweld Acetylene Co.        June 27
  17. Oxweld Acetylene Co.        June 29
  18. Wisconsin Lime Co.          June 30
  19. American Express Co.        July 1
  20. Wisconsin Lime Co.          July 5
  21. Oxweld Acetylene Co.        July 10
  22. Oxweld Acetylene Co.        July 11
  23. Edison Co.                  July 15
  24. Low Pipe Co.                July 24
  25. International Har. Co.      July 25
  26. J. A. Ross                  July 26

John M. is a casual laborer. He is one of a type that works by the
day, is paid by the day, and lives by the day. Don. D. Lescohier
has described the characteristics of the casual workers:

    A man becomes a casual when he acquires the casual state
    of mind. The extreme type of casual never seeks more than
    a day’s work. He lives strictly to the rule, one day at a
    time. If you ask him why he does not take a steady job, he
    will tell you that he would like to, but that he hasn’t
    money enough to enable him to live until pay-day, and no
    one will give him credit. If you offer to advance his board
    until pay-day, he will accept your offer and accept the
    job you offer him, but he will not show up on the job, or
    else will quit at the end of the first day. He has acquired
    a standard or scale of work and life that makes it almost
    impossible for him to restore himself to steady employment.
    He lacks the desire, the will-power, self-control,
    ambition, and habits of industry which are essential to
    it.[39]

The demoralizing effect of a period of unemployment upon the
migratory and casual worker is indicated in an interview given to
the investigator by Mr. Charles J. Boyd, general superintendent of
the Illinois Free Employment Offices in Chicago.

    Depending on one’s point of view, the homeless man, owing
    to the serious industrial depression during the winter of
    1921-1922 had remarkable success in begging or panhandling.
    The spirit of the public during the depression was to help
    the unemployed man and advantage of this situation was
    not lost sight of by the hobo who worked on the sympathy
    of the public. With the approach of summer and improved
    industrial conditions, the hobo continued to make a living
    in other ways than by working for it. There seems to be
    an understanding among this class of men not to work for
    less than 50c an hour, and they are loath to accept steady
    employment at 35c to 37½c hour when they can do temporary
    work, and work at a different job every day, or any day
    one pleases, at 45c to 50c an hour. The hobo is reluctant
    to work in foundries or steel mills. He likes the open and
    when winter is past, the hobo, with few exceptions, refuses
    inside work.

    The hobos of today are made up of young men, ranging in
    ages from 18 to 35 years. They form in groups of six or
    seven, camp in the “brush” and send a different one of
    their group out each day to panhandle in the town or
    village near which they may be camping. Then too, these men
    have very decided views on the Volstead law, before the
    enactment of which the hobo felt he had some inducement to
    work, for he liked his beer, if it was only 1½ per cent,
    and he did not know it. But since prohibition, his attitude
    seems to be “Why should I work any more than I really have
    to?” or in other words, more than to get enough for food
    and a place to sleep.[40]

The hobo is not unfamiliar with strike jobs. Corporations, when
forced to the wall in a labor crisis, often come to the “stem”
for their strike-breakers. By offering alluring wages and the
assurance of security, they are able to attract from ranks of
even the casual workers enough men to keep the plants running.
Labor agencies of this kind are not popular on the “stem”; neither
are the men who hire out as strike-breakers. But in spite of this
stigma they survive as during the railroad strike in the summer
of 1922. These railroad agencies crowded even to the heart of the
Madison Street mart and eventually forced the private agencies to
deal in strike jobs.

Strike-breakers or “scabs” are of four varieties: (1) men who are
innocently attracted to the job (it is generally charged that this
was the case in the Herrin affair); (2) men who are “too proud to
beg and too honest to steal”; (3) men who have a grudge against
some striking union, or against organized labor in general; and (4)
men who hire out as bona fide workers but really “bore from within”
and in the language of the radical “work sabotage.”


A NATIONAL PROBLEM

All the problems of the homeless man go back in one way or another
to the conditions of his work. The irregularity of his employment
is reflected in the irregularity of all phases of his existence.
To deal with him even as an individual, society must deal also
with the economic forces which have formed his behavior, with the
seasonal and cyclical fluctuations in industry. This means that the
problem of the homeless man is not local but national.

The establishment during the war of the United States Employment
Service gave promise of an attempt to cope with the problem
nationally. The curtailment of this service since 1919 through
inadequate appropriations has prevented its functioning on a scale
which the situation demands.

The emphasis upon the development of a national program means no
lack of recognition of the service of local employment agencies.
They are indispensable units in any effective plan of nation-wide
organization. The bureaus and branches, in Chicago, of the Illinois
Free Employment offices are now co-operating with the United States
Employment Service.


A CLEARING HOUSE FOR HOMELESS MEN

The accumulated experience of the local employment agencies will
be valuable not only in the future expansion of the national
employment service, but in pointing the way to the next steps to
be taken locally in dealing with the homeless man as a worker.
The officials of these agencies have learned that the problem
of adjusting the migratory casual worker in industry involves
human nature as well as economics. A conviction is growing that
in connection with, or in addition to, the public employment
agency designed to bring together the man and the job, there is
need of a clearing house which offers medical, psychological,
and sociological diagnosis as a basis for vocational guidance,
after-care service, and industrial rehabilitation.


FOOTNOTES:

[35] P. 51.

[36] Koster, unpublished manuscript, pp. 17-18.

[37] _Third Annual Report of the Department of Labor_ (1920), p. 50.

[38] E. H. Koster, unpublished notes, pp. 42-43.

[39] Lescohier, _The Labor Market_, p. 264.

[40] From the unpublished notes of an interview by E. H. Koster.




  PART III

  THE HOBO PROBLEM




CHAPTER IX

HEALTH


No extended study has ever been made that would afford an adequate
index for the physical fitness of homeless men. Municipal
lodging-houses, jails, hospitals, and other institutions have
collected certain data. But such information is indicative of
the physical and mental condition of those only who have become
problems of charity or correction. They do not represent the
whole group of homeless men. However, it is evident from these
studies that a large proportion of the entire group is below par
physically. They indicate at least that defective individuals are
comparatively numerous among hobos and tramps.


THE PHYSICALLY DEFECTIVE

Mrs. Alice W. Solenberger found that two-thirds of her 1,000 cases
were either physically or mentally defective. Of these, 627 men
and boys were suffering from a total of 722 physical and mental
deficiencies.[41]

  Condition                                                Instances

  Insanity                                                     52
  Feeble-mindedness                                            19
  Epilepsy                                                     18
  Paralysis                                                    40
  Other nervous disorders                                      21
  Tuberculosis                                                 93
  Rheumatism                                                   37
  Venereal diseases                                            21
  Other infectious diseases                                    15
  Heart disease                                                14
  Disorders of organs other than heart                         19
  Crippled, maimed, or deformed; from birth or accident       168
  Rupture                                                      11
  Cancer                                                        6
  Blind, including partly blind                                43
  Deaf, including partly deaf                                  14
  Defective health through use of drugs and drink              16
  Defective health from lack of nourishment and other
        causes                                                 24
  Convalescent                                                 33
  Aged                                                         35
  All other diseases and defects                                7
  Doubtful                                                     16
                                                              ---
  Total instances                                             722
  Total number of different men in defective health or
        condition                                             627

She tells us that of the 222 more or less permanently handicapped,
106 men had been entirely self-supporting before their injuries
while 127 were entirely dependent after injury.

A careful study of 100 homeless men made in the Municipal Lodging
House of New York City by F. C. Laubach showed the following
defects:[42]

  Tubercular                 7
  Venereal                  26
  Bronchial                  4
  Feeble                    14
  Senile                    16
  Deformed                   4
  Maimed                    14
  Malnutrition              13
  Poor sight                 9
  Poor hearing               1
  Impediment of speech       2
  Physically sound          28

Laubach’s 100 cases were selected from more than 400 men. They
represented the 100 who remained longest to be examined (perhaps
the 100 the least able to get away). He found 28 per cent
able-bodied while Mrs. Solenberger reported 37.3 per cent without
observable defects. That this per cent of defectives is high for
more unselected groups will be shown by the following extract from
the report of the Municipal Lodging House of New York City for 1915.

    ... Fifteen hundred men were studied by a staff of fifteen
    investigators. At the same time a medical examination
    of two thousand men was conducted by fifteen medical
    examiners. This investigation represented the first large
    attempt in America to find out about the men who take
    refuge in a municipal lodging house....

    Of the 2,000 men who were given a medical examination,
    1,774, approximately 9 out of every 10, were, according to
    the adjudgments of the examining physicians, physically
    able to work. Twelve hundred and forty-seven, or 62 per
    cent of the total, were considered physically able to do
    regular hard manual labor; 254, or 18 per cent, to do
    medium hard work; and 173, or 9 per cent, to do light work
    only. Two hundred and twenty-six, 1 out of every 10, were
    adjudged physically unable to work.[43]

This investigation showed that in a lean year, when many men were
out of work, a large proportion of the lodging-house population is
composed of handicapped men. The physical condition of 400 tramps
interviewed by the writer is not so much in contradiction as in
supplement to the foregoing studies.[44] Only men in transit were
tabulated. Nearly all of them were the typical migratory workers
or hobos. Observation was limited to apparent defects that would
hinder in a noticeable manner the working capacity of the men.

  Senile                        6
  Maimed                        8
  Eye lost or partly blind      5
  Eye trouble                   5
  Venereal disease              1
  Partly paralyzed              2
  Tuberculosis                  2
  Feeble-minded                 7
  Chronic poor health           4
  Impediment of speech          2
  Temporarily injured           4
  Oversized or undersized       4

    These 50 defects were distributed among 48 persons

Subtracting those who could be classed mentally defective, we have
but forty-one persons who were apparently physically handicapped.
It will be noted that the percentage of the aged is considerably
lower than the previous tables show. The same is true of the maimed
and injured. They were all men who were able to “get over the
road.” One of the maimed men had lost an arm while the two others
had each lost a foot.

Eye trouble was listed separately because these were ailments that
were passing. Three of the men had weak eyes and this condition had
been aggravated by train riding and loss of sleep. One man had been
gassed in the army and his eyes suffered from the wind and bright
light. Only one man admitted that he was suffering from a venereal
disease.

Both men suffering from tuberculosis were miners. Both had been in
hospitals for treatment. One of them was in a precarious condition.
The men listed as oversized and undersized might be properly
considered physically handicapped. Two of them were uncomfortably
fat while the other two were conspicuously under weight and height.


THE HOBO’S HEALTH ON THE JOB

Often the seasonal work sought by the migratory worker is located
in out-of-the-way places or with little or no medical or sanitary
supervision. Sometimes there are not even tents for the men to
sleep in. Life and work in the open, so conducive to health on
bright, warm days, involves exposure in cold and stormy weather.
In the northwest, where rain is so abundant that workers suffer
considerably from exposure, strikes have even been called to
enforce demands for warm, dry bunkhouses.

In addition to the exposure to the elements there are other hazards
the migratory and casual workers run. On most of his jobs, whether
in the woods, the swamps, in the sawmills, or the mines and
quarries, in the harvest, on bridges or on the highways, the hobo
faces danger. Since he is in the habit of working only a few days
at the time, a well-paying, hazardous job appeals to him. The not
infrequent accidents are serious since few of these foot-loose men
carry insurance.

Seasonal labor generally consists of hard work like shoveling or
lifting and carrying heavy loads. Only men who can do hard work
are wanted. Not much so-called “light work” aside from a few jobs
in kitchens, in stables, or about camps is open to the transient.
Many homeless men are not physically able to do eight or ten hours’
hard labor without suffering. They are often weak from eating poor
food or from dissipation. Even if they go on a job with their minds
made up to remain one or two months they are often obliged to leave
after a few days. Often the hobo works on jobs where there is no
medical attention. Sometimes, where the job includes large numbers
of men, a physician is hired to go from camp to camp. He is usually
known as a “pill peddler” and all he pretends to do is give first
aid to the injured and treat passing ailments. Serious cases he
sends to the hospital.

Big industrial organizations usually carry some sort of medical
insurance and in some cases accident insurance. This system of
workingmen’s compensation for industrial accidents is maintained
sometimes by fees taken from the pay of the men, sometimes entirely
by the employer. The accident compensation, the hospital, and
medical privileges apply only to ailments and injuries caused by
his work.

The food the hobo receives on the job is not always palatable, nor
does it always come up to the requirements of a balanced diet or
the caloric needs of a workingman. In the business of feeding the
men, considerable exploitation enters which the men are powerless
to prevent. The boarding contracts are often left to boarding
companies that agree to feed the men and furnish bunks for prices
ranging (since the war) from five to eight dollars a week. For the
privilege of boarding the workers, they agree to keep the gangs
filled. Often in the West the men furnish their own beds, but
private “bundle beds” are passing. Some companies furnish good
beds, but the general rule is to supply a tick that may be filled
with straw and a couple of quilts which are charged to the worker
until he returns them. These quilts and blankets are often used
again and again by different men without being cleaned during a
whole season.

Several boarding companies maintain free employment agencies in
Chicago, well known to the hobo and generally disliked. The
chief complaint against them is that in hard times, when men are
plentiful, there is a tendency to drop on the quality and the
quantity of the food. In such an event the monotony of the menu
and the unsavory manner in which food is prepared is a scandal
in Hoboland. However, all complaints against boarding companies
are not due to bad food. Poor cooking is another ground for much
dissatisfaction. Efficient camp cooks are rare and too high priced
for the average boarding company.


THE HEALTH OF THE MAN ON THE “STEM”

The hazards the homeless man takes while at work in the city are
far less than on the seasonal out-of-town work. The health problem
of the transient “on the stem” is nevertheless serious. It is not
so much a problem of work conditions as of hotels and lodging
accommodations and restaurants.

The cheap lodging-houses and hotels in Chicago are under the
surveillance of the Chicago Department of Health. The department
has done much to keep down contagion and to raise the standards
of these places. Infectious diseases have been more rare here
than in hotels in the Loop. These hotels survived the influenza
epidemics as well as any in the city. There has been a gradual
rise in the standards of health and sanitation of the hotels and
lodging-houses, but just how much this is due to the watchful
care of the Department of Health cannot be said. Other factors,
such as business competition, may also have entered in to improve
conditions.

In many respects the cheap workingmen’s hotels still fall far
below the standards set by law. Indeed, if all of them lived up
to the letter of the law in every respect, many would find it
unprofitable to operate. These hotels are in buildings that were
erected for other purposes, buildings that cannot be adequately
made over to accommodate comfortably hundreds of men.

The problem of ventilation is present in the older hotels for men.
In some corners, in hallways and isolated rooms, there is never any
circulation of air. The smells accumulate from day to day so that
the guest on entering a room is greeted by a variety of odors to
which each of his predecessors has contributed.

The following statement of an investigator indicates what is one of
the most objectionable features of the cheap hotel.

    The lack of adequate toilet facilities is deplorable. In
    one hotel I found two toilets for one hundred and eighty
    men and in another seven for three hundred and eighty. Some
    of the toilets have absolutely no outside ventilation,
    opening on sleeping rooms. Some of them are located in
    halls with no partition separating them from sleeping rooms
    and are a source of foul and nauseating odors.[45]

With respect to wash basins and bath facilities the condition is no
better. Many do not even have hot water. In some places from twenty
to forty men use the same wash bowl.

The Department of Health has taken an active part in the campaign
against vermin, and co-operates whenever a complaint is made.
Their task seems hopeless since the patrons are so transient and
so frequently carry vermin from one place to another. The very
buildings are often breeding places for bedbugs, lice, and roaches.


SICKNESS AND DISEASE

If the homeless man becomes sick or injured while at work he likely
will be cared for by the hospital maintained by the industry.
But he is in dire distress when he has no job and is in need of
medical attention. Occasionally men without funds go to private
physicians and not infrequently they get free treatment, but the
traditional and easier method of meeting such situations is to
go to an institution. Chicago, with its numerous hospitals and
medical colleges, is a Mecca for the sick and the afflicted of the
“floating fraternity.” Homeless men come sometimes several hundred
miles for treatment to this great healing center of trampdom. They
have no scruples against entering an institution as a charity
patient. To them it is not charity, but something due to the sick.


VENEREAL DISEASE

Venereal disease and ailments growing out of venereal disease play
a considerable rôle among the tramp population. The Chicago Health
Department on the basis of the medical examination of inmates of
the House of Correction estimates that 10 per cent of the homeless
men are venereally infected.[46] This is double the rate of
infection found in drafted men.[47]

The transient does not take venereal disease seriously. He takes no
precautions to protect himself after exposure. Necessity forces him
out on some job where he must work, sometimes even in an active
stage of infection. Often he tries to treat himself with remedies
recommended by druggists or friends. Once the transient submits to
treatment in a hospital or by a physician he will seldom continue
it after the active stage of his case has been passed.

Along the “stem,” sex perversion is not infrequent and occasionally
from such contacts infections occur. Embarrassing as it is for the
homeless man to apply to a hospital or clinic for treatment for
social disease, it is doubly so when thus infected. That such cases
are not numerous is true, but they do exist, and they provide an
answer to the pervert who holds that homosexuality is safe from
disease.[48]


ALCOHOLISM AND HEALTH

Practically all homeless men drink when liquor is available. The
only sober moments for many hobos and tramps are when they are
without funds.[49] The majority, however, are periodic drinkers
who have sober periods of a week, a month or two, or even a year.
These are the men who often work all summer with the avowed purpose
of going to some lodging-house and living quietly during the
winter, but usually they find themselves in the midst of a drunken
debauch before they have been in town more than a day or two.
Rarely does one meet a man among migratory workers who does not
indulge in an occasional “spree”; the teetotalers are few indeed.

The homeless man on a spree usually drinks as long as his money
lasts, and then he usually employs all the devices at his command
to get money to prolong the debauch. For the time being he will
disregard all other wants. After he sobers up and finds himself
sick, weak, and nervous, his plight is a sad one. He has no
appetite for the only food he is able to buy and the food he
craves he cannot afford. He is too weak and shaky to work, and
too disheartened to beg. In summer he can go to the parks or the
docks and sleep it off. Getting drunk in winter means more or less
exposure for these men, and their sobering up not infrequently
takes place in the hospital--or in jail. In view of these
after-effects, drinking is more serious for the homeless man than
for any other.

Chronic or periodic drunkenness with its accompanying exposure
leaves a stamp on the constitution of the homeless man that is not
easily erased. It aggravates any latent weaknesses that he may
have, and if he does not go to the hospital after a debauch with
lung trouble, nervous diseases, heart trouble, or rheumatism, he
is at least lowering his resistance to these and other diseases.
The man who survives best spends long periods on the job and only
occasionally visits the city.

When the amount of exposure, the extent of dissipation, and the
malnutrition that falls to the lot of the homeless man are taken
into consideration, it is remarkable that he is as free from
sickness as he is. The fact that he is outdoors much of the time
may have something to do with this.


THE PROBLEM OF HEALTH

Disease, physical disability, and insanitary living conditions seem
to be, as things are, the natural and inevitable consequences of
the migratory risk-taking and irregular life of the homeless man.
These effects of his work and life upon his physical constitution
will be considered by many the most appalling of all the problems
affecting the hobo and the tramp. Municipal provision and
philanthropic effort have been and will continue to be directed to
the treatment of his diseases and defects and to the improvement
of his living conditions. The efficiency of the homeless man as a
worker and his chance of regaining his lost economic and social
status depend upon his physical rehabilitation. A clearing house
for the homeless man when established should, therefore, include
as one of its activities facilities for diagnosis of the needs,
medical, vocational, social, of each individual.

The living conditions of the homeless man, although revolting to
the public, are intolerable to him, chiefly as a symbol of his
degradation. Lodging-house sanitation and personal hygiene are of
minor import, in his thinking, as compared with working conditions,
or, for that matter, with the problems of his social and political
status, to be discussed in the next two chapters.


FOOTNOTES:

[41] Alice W. Solenberger, _One Thousand Homeless Men_, p. 36.

[42] F. C. Laubach, _Why There Are Vagrants_, p. 21

[43] _Report of the Advisory Social Service Committee of the
Municipal Lodging House_, pp. 9-11. New York City: September, 1915.

[44] This unpublished study of 400 tramps was made while riding
freight trains from Salt Lake City, Utah, to Chicago in the summer
of 1921. All the cases tabulated were cases in transit. A large
part of them were men who regularly beat their way about the
country. Document 115.

[45] George S. Sobel, _Report to Committee_, summer, 1922.

[46] Letter from Chicago Health Department to Committee on Homeless
Men.

[47] U.S. Surgeon General’s Office, _Defects Found in Drafted Men_.

[48] Unpublished Document 87 is a statement from Dr. Ben L.
Reitman, based upon cases in his practice of venereal infection
caused by homosexual relations.

[49] It is of interest to note the findings of the study of 2,000
men in connection with the Municipal Lodging House of New York
City, 1914:

“Of 1,482 men who made statements regarding their habits,
1,292--approximately 9 out of every 10--said they drank alcoholic
liquors. Six hundred and fifty-seven or 44 per cent said that
they drank excessively; 635, or 43 per cent, said that they drank
moderately; and 190, or 13 per cent, claimed to be total abstainers.

“Of the 2,000 who were given a medical examination, 775, or 39 per
cent, were diagnosed as suffering from alcoholism. According to Dr.
James Alexander Miller, these ‘figures probably do not represent
by any means the number of individuals who were alcoholic ... but
rather indicate only the number who manifested acute evidence at
the time of investigation.’”--From the _Report of the Advisory
Social Service Committee of the Municipal Lodging House_, pp. 9-22.
New York: September, 1915.

Here we have in a few words a cross-section of the drinking
population among the homeless men in New York where conditions are
not materially different and where the population is essentially
the same as in Hobohemia.




CHAPTER X

SEX LIFE OF THE HOMELESS MAN


Tramping is a man’s game. Few women are ever found on the road. The
inconveniences and hazards of tramping prevent it. Women do wander
from city to city but convention forbids them to ride the roads and
move about as men do. One tramp who had traveled 8,000 miles in six
months said: “I even saw two women on the road, and last summer I
saw a woman beating her way in a box car.”

Tramping is a man’s game. Few pre-adolescent boys are tramps. They
do not break away permanently until later in their teens. How does
the absence of women and children affect the life of the migratory
worker? What difference would it make if tramps traveled like
gypsies, taking their women and children with them? How does the
absence of women and children affect the fantasy and the reveries
and eventually the behavior of the homeless man?

The majority of homeless men are unmarried. Those who are married
are separated, at least temporarily, from their families.[50] Most
homeless men in the city are older than the average man on the road
and would be expected, therefore, to have had marital experience.
They are content to live in town while the younger men are eager to
move in the restless search for adventure and new experience.


THE TRAMP AND HIS ASSOCIATIONS WITH WOMEN

The homeless man has not always been homeless. Like most of us,
he was reared in a home and is so far a product of home life.
He enters upon the life of the road in his late teens or early
twenties. He brings with him, as a rule, the habits and memories
gained in the more stable existence in the family and community.
Frequently it has been his conflict with, and rebellion against,
that more stable existence that set him on the road.

Most of these men have mothers living. If their mothers are dead,
they speak of them reverently. The mission workers often direct
their appeals to these early memories, “the religion of our
mothers.” The only correspondence that some homeless men carry on
is with their mothers. Some of them only write one or two letters a
year but these are letters home. In most of the missions there is a
sign with the inscription, “When Did You Write to Mother Last?”

Other women may, and sometimes do, exert a wholesome influence upon
him. He is often profoundly touched by the women of the missions
who stand on the street corner and plead with him for his soul’s
sake. Young and attractive women invite more attention because
of their sex than their message. Though he may have little or
no interest in the religious appeal, feeling for these women is
generally idealized and wholesome. The missions have learned the
value of young and attractive women and employ them extensively as
evangelists.

Women in places where the hobo has worked or boarded, generally
older women, frequently take a mother’s interest in him. “Mother”
Greenstein, who keeps a restaurant on South State Street, is the
idol of a great many “bos.” She never turns a hungry man away. She
is known far and near by tramps and hobos. Many men know her by
reputation who have never seen her.

Another woman who has become well known to many homeless men is
“Aunt” Nina S. She kept a rooming-house for years and always gave
any man who came to her in winter some place to sleep. She could
always find room. Her only compensation was the good will of the
homeless man.

    51. Another woman who has won a place in the hearts of men
    of West Madison Street is an old lady whom the “bos” call
    “Mother.” She does not give them anything; on the contrary
    she begs from them but she takes a motherly interest in all
    the “boys.” She is against anyone who makes life hard for
    them and hates the bootleggers, the gypsies, the gamblers,
    and all who exploit them. She will denounce and curse
    anyone who dares to call them “bums” in her presence. Her
    hobby is cats. She spends several hours a day going up and
    down the street feeding cats. All the “boys” are tolerant
    of all cats on the street because they belong to “Mother.”
    He is a poor “bo,” indeed, who will not spare “Mother” a
    dime now and then for milk for her “kitties.”

When the tramp works he usually goes out on some job where there
are no women. He may spend six months in a lumber camp and not
see a woman during all that time. He may work for a whole summer,
along with hundreds like himself, and never meet a woman. Sometimes
there are women on such jobs, but they are generally the wives of
the bosses and have no interest in the common workers. Children in
such families frequently strike up a more intimate acquaintance
with them. The only company for such a man is men, and men who are
living the same unnatural life as himself.

There are jobs open to the homeless man that are more wholesome.
Sometimes he finds himself in communities where he is neither
isolated nor an outcast. The tramp is not often interested in
small-town or country associations, because they generally tend to
terminate seriously and he does not want to be taken seriously. If
he has the money to spend, and he usually has while he is working,
he can meet women, but he meets them in town when he has leisure.
He may have a hundred reasons for going to town, but the major
reason, whether he admits it or not, is to meet women. The types
of women he meets depends upon his personality, his taste, and his
purse. In this he is like the soldier or the sailor.

The younger hobos, especially those who are on the road and off
again by turns, are able at times to save money and put on a
“front.” These younger men are frequently able, therefore, to
get into the social life of the communities in which they find
themselves. When they are in town with money to spend they “go
the limit” while it lasts, and then they go out to work and save
up another “stake.” Usually they have a number of women on their
correspondence lists. As they go from one city to another they make
new acquaintances and forget the old friends. Usually they are as
transient in their attachments to women as to their jobs.

Many of these younger men ultimately settle down, but they do not
always have the ability to make permanent attachments though they
may try again and again. They invariably seek greener pastures.
Wherever they are, they will be found “burning the candles at both
ends.” As long as they are young and attractive they have little
difficulty in finding girls who are willing to assist them in
scattering their cash.

Among these are the show girls who sing or dance in the cheap
burlesque theaters on South State and West Madison streets.
Thousands of hobos, who never can hope to come in personal contact
with chorus girls, throng the cheap playhouses of Hobohemia.
The titillations of a State Street vaudeville are vulgar and
inexpensive. The men, many of them, at least, would not and could
not appreciate a higher grade of entertainment.

The hobo has few ideal associations with women. Since most of
them are unmarried, or living apart from their wives, their sex
relations are naturally illicit. The tramp is not a marrying man,
though he does enter into transient free unions with women when the
occasion offers. There are many women in the larger cities who have
no scruples against living with a man during the winter, or for
even a year or two, without insisting upon the marriage rite. They
are not prostitutes, not even “kept women.”

    52. M. lived with Mrs. S. N. for four or five years, off
    and on, whenever he was in town. What little money he
    earned he brought home, though he took money from Mrs. N.
    more frequently. She worked and usually when she came home
    very tired he would have the house work done and a meal
    ready. When she was sick he waited on her. He listened to
    her troubles and was patient and good natured. In winter he
    always got up and made the fires. She was always jealous
    of him and when he would leave town for a month or two she
    fancied that it was to get away from her and to live with
    some other woman. Finally they separated, but they are
    still good friends. He is living with another woman and she
    with another man. Of late he is only in Chicago in winter.

The tramp who succeeds in living in idleness with a woman in such
a companionship considers himself fortunate. The woman who can
find a man like M. is often content, provided he is faithful to
her, although she prefers a man who can be depended upon to earn a
little money. The women who enter these free unions have the least
to gain and the most to lose. The general experience of women who
keep their “men” is that when they are in the direst need the men
will desert them; on the other hand, when the men are in need they
will return.

A certain class of detached men makes a practice of getting into
the good graces of some prostitute for the winter. The panderer is
not a characteristic tramp type, but certain homeless men are not
averse to becoming pimps for a season. These attachments between
homeless men and prostitutes are often quite real. Some of them
even become permanent, others last a year or two, but most of them
are only of a few months’ duration. While they do persist they are
often more or less sentimental.


THE HOBO AND PROSTITUTION

Most hobos and tramps because of drink, unpresentable appearance,
or unattractive personality, do not succeed in establishing
permanent, or even quasi-permanent, relationships with women. For
them the only accessible women are prostitutes and the prostitutes
who solicit the patronage of the homeless man are usually forlorn
and bedraggled creatures who have not been able to hold out in the
fierce competition in higher circles.

These women, otherwise so isolated and so hard pressed by their
exigent wants, do not live on the “main stem,” but adjacent to
it. They are conveniently located so that even the “floater,” who
comes to town with a few months’ savings, has no trouble in finding
them. The upper-class prostitutes keep men on the street getting
the business for them. Pandering is an art, and many of these
pimps have become adept in catching the men who come to town with
“rolls.” Only a small part of the commerce of the homeless man is
with the “live ones.” He usually has so little money that he is
forced to bargain for the attention of the lowest women that walk
the streets.

Men with “rolls” are scarce in Hobohemia. One man met on West
Madison Street said: “I came in last night with $380 and now I’m
flatter’n a pancake. I didn’t even get a pair of sox. Hallelujah!
I’m a bum.” He was still too drunk to realize the situation, but
next day he was uncertain whether he had been robbed by a woman or
by a “jack roller.” He did not even know whether he had been robbed
or had lost his money. He had worked all winter and spring on a
ranch near Casper, Wyoming, and had come to town with a trainload
of cattle.[51] It is seldom that the second-rate prostitute gets
hold of so much money.

From these “second raters” the tramp is doubly liable to infection.
Most of them have been diseased at some time while some of them
are infected all the time. More than one-third of them, according
to Dr. Ben L. Reitman, of the Chicago Health Department, are
constantly spreading infection. The homeless man is well aware of
the risk he runs when he patronizes the prostitute, but he does not
realize the gravity of the danger.


PERVERSION AMONG THE TRAMPS

All studies indicate that homosexual practices among homeless
men are widespread. They are especially prevalent among men on
the road among whom there is a tendency to idealize and justify
the practice. Homosexuality is not more common among tramps than
among other one-sex groups. In the prison and jail population, the
authorities are forced to wage a constant warfare against it. The
same condition prevails also in the navy or merchant marine, and,
to a lesser extent, in the army.[52]

Among tramps there are, it seems, two types of perverts. There
are those who are subjects, in the words of Havelock Ellis, “of a
congenital predisposition, or complexus of abnormalities.” Ellis
contends that certain individuals, different temperamentally and
physically from the rest of us, are not attracted by the opposite
sex but are easily attracted by their own sex. Most of them are men
who have developed from childhood feminine traits and tastes, and
they may be regarded as predisposed to homosexuality. The second
group is composed of individuals who have temporarily substituted
homosexual for heterosexual behavior. Most of these perverts by
conversion are men who, under the pressure of sex isolation, have
substituted boy for woman as the object of their desires. This is
chiefly because boys are accessible while women are not.


THE BOY TRAMP AND PERVERSION

The boy does not need to remain long in hobo society to learn of
homosexual practices. The average boy on the road is invariably
approached by men who get into his good graces. Some “homos” claim
that every boy is a potential homosexual. This is without doubt an
exaggeration as well as a defense, for not all boys are subject to
persuasion. Sometimes boys will travel alone or with other boys to
avoid the approaches of older men. Often boys will refrain from
traveling with adults, even well-behaved adults, because they
realize that they will be under suspicion. It is not uncommon to
hear a boy who is seen traveling with an older man spoken of as the
“wife” or “woman.” It is only natural that many boys fear to be
alone with adult tramps.

    53. The case of M. is typical. He is a sixteen year old boy
    who travels alone. He is a handsome lad; small for his age
    and neat in appearance. He is just the type of boy that
    would attract the average “wolf” who idealizes pink cheeks
    and an innocent appearance. He travels alone because of
    his fear of “wolves.” He had not been away from home three
    weeks and he says that he has been accosted several times.
    Although he had been in Chicago but a day he had received
    advances from two men who tried to persuade him to go to a
    room.

Many devices are employed by them to place the lad in their debt
or under their protection. If methods of persuasion do not work,
force is sometimes used. One man gave a brakeman a dollar to put
a boy off the train at a lonely siding. Another man learned which
direction a certain boy was traveling and followed him from town
to town, “accidentally” meeting him at each place. The lad was
without funds, and so was the man, but the latter was able to beg
and usually had a “lump” when he met the boy and he always divided.
Another man led a boy a mile or so out in the country to a place
where he claimed he had worked during the previous year and where
he knew they could both get something to eat.

Another common ruse is to take a boy to a room or a box car to
sleep. The man suggests that he knows a clean car in a safe place
with plenty of straw or paper on the floor. In a big city the boy
is often enticed to a room for the same purpose. There are many
cases on record in the Chicago courts.[53]

    54. A. F., a boy sixteen years old, was being held in a
    room on West Ohio Street to which he had been enticed for
    immoral purposes by John M. J. M. was arrested on complaint
    of one F. He was found in company with another boy in a
    room in the E. Hotel on South State Street. John was held
    for trial on $3,000 bonds which he could not furnish. He
    died in jail waiting for trial.

    55. C. J. This man worked on a boat plying between Michigan
    ports and Chicago. He persuaded a Michigan boy whose home
    was near Lansing but who had run away and was loafing about
    the docks on the lake front, to come with him to Chicago.
    He promised to help the boy get a job, etc. He took him to
    a room on South State Street where he held him for three
    days and had improper relations with him. Prior to his
    apprehension he had turned the boy over to another man for
    the same purpose.

Josiah Flynt, who was familiar with tramp life, seems to be of the
opinion that most boys are forced into the practice. However, it
does not seem probable that force is so extensively employed as is
sometimes believed. These accounts serve as a defense reaction on
their part, yet we cannot say that such forced initiations do not
occur. But even those who at the outset were the victims of “strong
arm” methods often become reconciled to the practice and continue
it. Often they become promiscuous in their relations and many of
them even commercialize themselves.

Writers on the sex behavior of men and boys often refer to the
relationship as it exists among tramps as a sort of slavery. By
slavery is meant that boys are held in bondage to men and forced
to steal and beg for them. This condition may exist in isolated
instances but it is not general. It is even suggested by some
authorities that there exists some sort of organization among
tramps through which boys have been “caught” and kept in servitude.
The best evidence that such an organization does not exist is the
fact that perverted sex practices are frowned upon by the tramps
themselves.

The court records show, however, that not infrequently boys are
held in rooms, or taken to lonely buildings, or out on the lake
front, or in the parks, but the case that gets into court is seldom
one in which both parties were free agents. If there is slavery in
these latter cases it is slavery to their passions, or to a state
of mind growing out of their habits and their isolation.

The duration of an intimacy of this kind in the city is seldom more
than a few days. On the road, however, the “partnership” may last
for weeks. Whereas, out of town the pair can travel as companions
aiding each other, in the city they can get along better alone.
It is difficult for partners to remain together long in the city,
especially if one has money and the other none, or if one drinks
and the other does not. Living in a metropolis is a problem the
tramp can solve better alone.


ATTITUDES OF THE PERVERT

Tramp perverts argue that homosexual intercourse is “clean” and
that homosexuals are less liable to become infected with venereal
disease. The Vice Commission of Chicago, in its report for 1911,
states that homosexual individuals “are not known in their true
character to any extent by the physicians because of the fact that
their habits do not, as a rule, produce bodily disease.”[54]

It is also urged by perverts that in the homosexual relation there
is the absence of the eternal complications in which one becomes
involved with women. They want to avoid intimacies that complicate
the free life to which they are by temperament and habit committed.
Homosexual attachments are generally short lived, but they are
real while they last. Sometimes a man will assume a priority over
a boy and will even fight to maintain it. The investigator during
his study of this phase of the tramp problem made two unsuccessful
attempts to step between men and their boys, or “lambs.” In one
case his interference was resented by both the man and the boy, but
in the other it was rather enjoyed by the boy, though he would not
be separated from his “wolf.”

The investigator met S., a veteran “wolf” on Madison Street.
When he was asked why his face was so badly bruised he said that
he and another man had fought over a boy. “He was trying to get
my kid into a room with him.” He claimed that he hit the man
and ran but that he was arrested. He was held over night in the
Desplaines Street Station on a charge of disorderly conduct, but
was discharged the next morning. What hurt him most was not the
night in jail or his bruised face but the fact that the other man
had left town with the boy.

In his sex life, as in his whole existence, the homeless man moves
in a vicious circle. Industrially inadequate, his migratory habits
render him the more economically inefficient. A social outcast, he
still wants the companionship which his mode of life denies him.
Debarred from family life, he hungers for intimate associations
and affection. The women that he knows, with few exceptions, are
repulsive to him. Attractive women live in social worlds infinitely
remote from his. With him the fundamental wishes of the person for
response and status have been denied expression. The prevalence
of sexual perversion among the homeless men is, therefore, but
the extreme expression of their unnatural sex life. Homosexual
practices arise almost inevitably in similar situations of sex
isolation. A constructive solution for the problems of the sex life
of the homeless man strikes deeper into our social life than this
study can carry us.


FOOTNOTES:

[50] Of the 1,000 men studied by Mrs. Solenberger, 74 per cent
gave their marital status as single. Of the 400 interviewed by the
writer 86 per cent stated that they were unmarried. Only 8 per cent
of the former and 5 per cent of the latter survey claimed they were
married. The others claimed to be widowed, divorced, or separated
from their wives. Unpublished Document 142.

[51] Unpublished Document 114.

[52] Iwan Bloch, _Sexual Life of Our Times_, p. 540.

[53] Unpublished Document 32.

[54] _The Social Evil in Chicago_, pp. 296-97.




CHAPTER XI

THE HOBO AS A CITIZEN


Where are we to place the hobo as a citizen? What is his actual
status as a member of society or as a functioning unit in the
state? Where does he stand in relation to organized society and its
laws and its mores?

The public dismisses these questions by assigning the hobo and the
tramp to the class of “undesirables.” This reaction of the public
is, of course, emotional and superficial, based partly on the
shabby and unkempt appearance of the men of the road and partly
on their reputation as beggars, vagrants, drunkards, and petty
thieves. Any study of the homeless man as a citizen must go farther
and take into account such factors as nativity, naturalization, and
patriotism; legal residence and the right and opportunity to vote;
obedience to law; and his political aspirations.


NATIVITY, NATURALIZATION, AND PATRIOTISM

Students of hobos and tramps have been struck by the fact that the
great majority of homeless men are native-born Americans. Mrs.
Solenberger found that of 1,000, 623 were native born. Of the 400
tramps interviewed by the writer during the summer of 1921, only
61 were foreign-born and 23 of these had taken out naturalization
papers. From these and other studies it appears that from 60 to 90
per cent of hobos and tramps are native born.

The tramp is an American product. The foreign-born in this group
are chiefly of the older immigration. Among these, Englishmen,
proverbial as “globe-trotters,” are conspicuous. The number
of homeless men from the newer immigration is small, and the
individuals who are found in the tramp and hobo group seem often
out of place.

One test of patriotism is military service. The writer found that
of the 400 he interviewed, 92 had seen military service. This
figure is high, since there were only 183 men of the whole group
between the ages of twenty and thirty-four. These men were listed
in 1921 and would include many who were not in the draft age when
the allotments were drawn in 1918. There were of the 400, 58 who
were probably under the draft age in 1918. When we consider the
proportion of physically and mentally unfit, it seems that this
figure is high.[55]


THE HOBO AND HIS VOTE

What is the status of the hobo as a voter? He seldom remains in one
place long enough to acquire legal residence. His work, because
of its seasonal character, often takes him away from his legal
residence just at the time when he should be there to register or
vote. Whether he has a desire to cast his ballot or not, he is
seldom able to do so.

A canvass of thirty-five Hobohemian hotels in Chicago has shown
that about a third of the guests are voters. In March, 1923, there
were 3,029 registered voters from these hotels, which have a total
capacity of 9,480. Many of these, though they are in the city
only in winter or for a few weeks at a time, manage to maintain
a residence here and, if they are in the city during an election,
they vote.

Charges are even made that tramps and hobos sell their votes, that
they often engage in “repeating.” There is not as much ground for
such charges as one would expect. The average tramp does not have
the courage to take the chances that the “repeater” must expect
to run. He realizes also that he is always under more or less
suspicion even when he is going straight, and this serves as a
brake.

Homeless men as a group make much of the fact that they are
excluded from the ballot, and they remind all who have the patience
to listen that the exclusion is unjust because they perform an
important and legitimate function in the labor world. They seem to
protest against their exclusion more than to demand the ballot. One
man said that he did not know if he would vote if he had a chance,
“but it’s the principle of the thing.”

The International Brotherhood Welfare Association has repeatedly
stood for some form of universal suffrage that would permit
migratory workers to vote, regardless of the length of their
residence in a community.

    During the latter part of May, 1922, a convention of the
    Farmer-Labor Party was held in Chicago. Certain members of
    the hobo group failed in the attempt to get a resolution
    through the convention in favor of giving the vote to
    migratory workers. Certain delegates feared that the
    hobo was too irresponsible to use the ballot. The farmer
    element in the Farmer-Labor Party resented the idea of
    giving support to the tramp group by whom they had been
    harassed so much in the harvest fields. Nor is the I.W.W.
    particularly interested in “votes for the hobos,” because
    in their opinion the ballot is at best an indirect method
    of accomplishing what can be easier secured by direct
    action.

Forty-eight of the 400 homeless men studied by the writer claimed
to have voted in the presidential election of 1920.

    56. One of the men interviewed in this study said: “I
    happened to drop into Salt Lake the last day of the
    registration so I got my name on the dotted line. I swore I
    had been in the state a year. They couldn’t prove I wasn’t,
    so it passed. I’d been in ten or fifteen states that year.
    Well, when election came I was working in Bingham. My boss
    was short of help and didn’t want me to lay off to vote,
    so I quit and went to Salt Lake. Got there just before the
    polls closed.”

One man said that he beat his way 1,000 miles to cast his ballot.
Most of the 48, however, had voted because at election time they
were living in or near their legal residence. What was the attitude
of the 352 who did not vote? The following are the reasons given
(with reference to 1920 election):[56]

  No desire to vote and no legal residence           28
  Having legal residence but no desire to vote       54
  No legal residence but desire to vote             129
  Under twenty-one                                   88
  Aliens                                             38*
  In military service                                 9
  Disfranchised                                       2
  Not known                                           4
                                                    ---
      Total                                         352

  * Sixty-one foreign-born in 400; 23 naturalized.

There were 28 men both ineligible to vote and indifferent to the
ballot. The group of 54 who had no desire to vote included men
who were at home, or near their legal residence, and could have
voted had they been interested. The two listed as disfranchised
were both men who had been dishonorably discharged from the navy.
Both were under twenty-one and had enlisted under the pressure of
wartime enthusiasm. One of these was not interested in voting and
the other said that the vote was a joke anyway.


THE HOMELESS MAN AND THE LAW

The migratory worker is not saddled with responsibility for law and
order. As he makes his way about the country, he is unincumbered.
He has nothing to lose and nothing to protect but his person,
and that he protects best by constantly moving. The homeless man
has no interest in common with the settled man of the community
who has attachments and property, and at whose expense he often
lives. The migratory worker, for a time, may be physically a part
of a community, but he actually does not become absorbed into its
social life. The wanderer who fails to win a place in the life of a
community often takes his own course. This course is sometimes in
harmony with the interests of the community, but more often counter
to them, and he fails under the surveillance of the law.

To the tramp and the hobo the police are the guardian angels
of organized society, created to protect the community against
criminals and migrants. To him there are two varieties of
police--civil and private. The uniformed upholder of the law,
the civil police, is given the uncomplimentary epithet, “harness
bull.” The plain-clothes men are called “dicks,” “fly cops,” and
“stool pigeons.” The private police who protect the property of the
railroad are held in even lower contempt.


THE PRIVATE POLICE

The chief job of the “dicks” is to keep the “bos” off the trains.
The private police are unpopular, not only among homeless men, but
also among the employees of the railroads. Brakemen and switchmen
will often aid tramps in their effort to avoid the police. Railroad
police must often contend with a lack of co-operation by the civil
police. The town police, or “town clown” as he is called, may order
the tramps to leave on the “next train,” while the railroad police
may be making every effort to prevent their riding the trains. The
town police are not anxious to fill the jail; they prefer that the
transients move on; they reason that the railroad should take away
what the railroad brought.

The railroad policeman shows results, not by the number of
convictions as the civil police, but by his ability to keep at
a minimum the number of offenses against railroad property. His
endeavor is to put fear into the hearts of all trespassers on the
right-of-way. He becomes a hunter of men, not to seize and detain
them, but to pursue and terrorize them. He is to the railroad
property what the scarecrow is to the cornfield.

Railroad police sometimes drive men off fast-moving trains by
throwing stones or shooting at them. Not infrequently they catch
and maltreat a tramp; however, they are seldom able to get hold of
a veteran tramp. The inexperienced man or the boy is more likely
to be caught. These means of putting fear into men do not stop
tramping. As they become fearful of the railroad “bull,” they
become more cautious, and the “bull’s” problem is increasingly
difficult.


WHAT THE TRAMP THINKS OF THE PRIVATE POLICE

To migrants the railroad is “the tramp’s traditional highway.” The
tramp, however, expects opposition from the railroad police and
even from the train crews; nevertheless he measures his success as
a “boomer” by his ability to outwit this opposition. Encounters
with the railroad police are a favorite theme of conversation in
the “jungles” and along the “stem.”

One man tells of being held in Hutchinson, Kansas, on suspicion:

    57. A bunch of us came in on a freight and started up town.
    It was about midnight and the moon was shining. We were
    sneaking along the shade of a row of box cars. A couple of
    men halted us and ordered us to come out into the light. I
    had a notion to run but one of the other fellows said they
    had “gats” and we’d better take no chances. It was a good
    thing we didn’t run because we found out that a couple of
    men had escaped from the jail. All the police and a lot of
    the citizens had been drafted to find them. Most of them
    carried guns and nothing would have suited them better than
    to have had some one to shoot at.

    They rounded up about ten “bos” out of the yards and took
    us to a room in the depot where they held us for about an
    hour till one of the guards came from the jail. He did
    not see the escaped men in the crowd so we were turned
    loose. The railroad “bull” ordered us to walk out of town.
    We walked out a ways and then sneaked back and caught a
    freight.

    I think we got off easy. I had a buddy once who was held a
    week until the police could get a picture. He was caught by
    the railroad “bull” and turned over to the “town clown.”
    They are always sorry if they can’t get something on a “bo”
    they hold.

Youths in their first adventures on the road accept with zest the
conflict with the private police. A student who made a practice of
“working the harvest” each summer gives the following statement:

    58. My first experience with a bull was at Marshalltown,
    Iowa. I had been selling books up near Mason City, Iowa,
    and after three weeks of that loathsome occupation, I threw
    my prospectus into the ditch and started for home. Late
    one night I caught an express train on the Northwestern
    from Ames, Iowa, bound for Chicago, and rode from there
    to Marshalltown; unfortunately the train pulled into the
    station very slowly and the long string of lights on the
    station platform shed a great deal of light on the train. I
    started to get off when a rough voice cursing loudly told
    me to get off on that side. He took me by the shoulder and
    asked me what in hell I was doing riding on that train.
    “Don’t you know,” he said, “what we do with fellows who
    ride the front ends of these trains?” He gave me a kick and
    told me to get out of the yards. It was my first encounter
    with the “bulls” and I have since learned that “bull”
    tactics are very much the same.

    Another time I crawled off the train into the waiting arms
    of a Rock Island “bull” in Council Bluffs, Iowa. He showed
    me his star and searched me over carefully, feeling every
    lump in my clothing. During the search he said, “Will you
    give me all I find on you?” The question rather startled me
    but I quickly replied, “Yes.” Finding nothing, he seemed
    disappointed and said, “I can’t understand why you haven’t
    more money on you! What are you, anyway?” I told him I was
    a college student looking for work. “The hell you are!”
    he sneered, “you’re a Weary Willie, now get out of here,
    quick.”

    At Grand Island some fifty of us tried to ride a
    merchandise freight out of the yards, when an energetic
    “bull” pulled himself out of a car and waved a revolver
    wildly warning all not to get on. It was a long freight and
    the men strung themselves up and down the track the full
    length of it. In spite of his efforts, several got aboard.
    My companion and I were quite close to him and made no
    effort to get on.

    My next encounter occurred at Bureau, Illinois, a division
    point on the Rock Island. There were four of us on the
    tender (behind the engine), my room mate and I and two lads
    who had jumped on some miles down the line. They had been
    jumping on and off and having a good time generally. Both
    of them had on white shirts and could be easily recognized
    by the train men. At Bureau a rough looking “bull” poked
    his head over the tender, waved a gun, cursed madly and
    told us to get down from there. We were lying flat on one
    corner and I did not believe he had seen us. The two boys
    did as they were told while I held my room mate down and
    told him not to move. I heard him swearing at the boys as
    the train pulled out.

    With a companion I left a Rock Island freight one afternoon
    to get a drink of water. We came back to see our train
    far up the track toward Des Moines. I noticed by my table
    that an express train would soon be in. My companion was a
    long, lean individual, a bluffing, blustering type probably
    weighing about 175 pounds. A “bull” was waiting for us at
    Valley Junction, just outside of Des Moines. He pulled us
    off and marched us out in front of all the passengers and
    into the station. We both noticed that we had climbed a
    mail train and that our future was not very bright. The
    station agent was not in and I sized Mr. “Bull” up as he
    searched us. He was a young fellow, not over twenty-five
    and did not look nearly as hard as he talked. My companion
    was as pale as a sheet and would say nothing. I talked to
    him as best I could, and after scaring us to the best of
    his ability he finally turned us loose, actually buying us
    a ticket on the auto bus to Des Moines. He acted almost
    human toward us.

A man, prominent in Hobohemia as a soap-boxer, recites this
experience out of a great number that he has had with railroad and
other private police.

    59. I was traveling in Indiana with a man by the name of
    Sullivan, known around the country as “Sully.” We got off
    at Flora, a railroad town in Indiana. It was cold and the
    town was “hostile” because so many “bos” had been there
    that the people were hardened to them. We knew better than
    to hang around the railroad yards so we decided to go out
    of town a ways and build a fire to keep warm while we
    waited for a train. We started out but Sully decided to
    return and learn from the switchman when a train would be
    leaving. I said that I would go out along the track and
    build a wind break with some old ties and make a fire.

    I dragged some ties together and had the wind break up by
    the time Sully returned. I had the fire going too and was
    taking off my shoes. I had stepped in some water while
    dragging ties and my feet were wet and cold.

    Everything went fine for about half an hour. I was drying
    my shoes and socks and Sully and I were talking about where
    we were going and what to do. It was at the time of the
    Steel Strike, and Sully was planning on going up there to
    get a job as a “scab herder.” He said that by that means he
    would get in with the company and that he could work some
    “sabotage” in the interest of the workers. At that time I
    was traveling and selling literature, and holding street
    meetings in the interests of the I.B.W.A.

    All of a sudden something hit me in the back between the
    shoulder blades. I looked around quickly and there were two
    “bulls.” We were on railroad property and I knew we were
    in for it. Sully ducked and went over the fence. I had my
    shoes off and couldn’t run. One of them gave me another tap
    on the back with a black jack. “What are you here for?” “I
    am drying my shoes,” was the only answer I could think of.
    As I hurried to get my shoes on one of them slapped me on
    the side of the head. I jumped and ran while they cursed me
    and told me never to let them catch me again. I met Sully
    an hour later and together we cursed all railroad “bulls”
    as cowards and sneaks.

    Sometime after that I was told by a friend that Sully was
    an employee of the Pinkerton agency. I did not believe it
    but before a year was out I heard it from two or three
    sources. I made an effort to find out and I learned it
    was true; that he was in their employ at the time we got
    chased. Then it came to me why he went back to talk to the
    switchmen and how he got away without being hit. He was
    traveling with me because he was trying to get a line on me
    as an agitator.

These stories are typical of those that any experienced tramp can
tell.

The private police “talks by hand” because it is the most practical
method at his command. The argument of the club coincides most
admirably with the mood he is in when on duty searching trains and
keeping trespassers off railroad property. He is a hunter and the
tramp is his prey. If it is a game to the police, it is no less so
to the tramp. One lad who had been caught a time or two said: “I
get a lot of ‘kick’ out of riding trains out of a place when I know
the ‘dicks’ are trying to keep me off.”

When a town has a railroad policeman who is “hard,” the fact is
soon noised about. A few years ago, Galesburg, Illinois, was known
throughout the country for the “bad” colored policeman who guarded
the yards. The hobo who could tell a story of an encounter with
the big “nigger bull” had an exploit to be proud of. For some time
Green River, Wyoming, boasted a “hard bull” known to the “floating
fraternity” as “Green River Slim.” As the reputation of a “bad”
policeman travels ahead, so the information about his tactics and
methods. Where he may be found, how avoided, how he watches the
trains, are usually common knowledge to the average “bo” before he
reaches a town.


ATTITUDE OF THE PRIVATE POLICE

The _Hobo News_ for April, 1922, reprinted an article “The Hobo;
a Real Problem to the Railroad,” by T. T. Kelihor, chief special
agent of the Illinois Central Railroad. The article was given space
in the _News_ in order that the hobos might see how the “bulls”
regarded them. It was followed by a caustic criticism from the
editor who charged that the writer “like the rest of his fraternity
cannot distinguish between Hobos and Bums and Tramps and Yeggs.”

    The railroads of this country are the chief sufferers from
    this cancerous social growth. There is no property right or
    other rights of the railroad that the modern hobo feels
    called upon to consider or respect. Millions of dollars’
    worth of railway property and merchandise in transit are
    destroyed and stolen annually by this class. The actual
    value of merchandise stolen is only a small part of the
    loss of merchandise in trains.

    The average hobo realizes that he is not provided with
    means of carrying away a large amount of bulky goods.
    Consequently when hobos enter a merchandise car, they
    break open a great many cases and dump or throw out the
    contents on the floor in searching for small, compact,
    valuable goods that they can carry off concealed about
    their persons. It often happens that they will not take
    more than $50.00 value in valuable articles, but they will
    destroy and damage $500.00 worth of goods by destroying the
    original containers and soiling the contents by trampling
    on them on the dirty floor of the car and otherwise
    damaging them.

The amount of property the tramp actually steals and destroys is
not known. He probably is blamed for more damage than he does.
Those who speak for the hobo class claim that most of the goods
stolen from cars is taken by train crews who shield themselves
by pointing to the tramp, who is already an outlaw as far as the
railroad is concerned, because he steals rides. Aside from the loss
of property, Mr. Kelihor calls attention to the great loss of life
attributed to tramping.

The loss of life and limb on account of hobos riding trains and
trespassing on the right-of-way, and the consequent financial and
economic loss to the country and the railroads, is appalling. The
reports for all railroads during 1919 show:

  Trespassers killed       2,553
  Trespassers injured      2,658
                           -----
      Total                5,211

And during 1920:

  Trespassers killed       2,166
  Trespassers injured      2,362
                           -----
      Total                4,528

    During 1921, on the Illinois Central and the Yazoo and
    Mississippi railroads, 98 trespassers were killed and 221
    injured.

How many of these persons killed were actually hobos, perhaps even
the railroads could not say. To the railroad officials anyone is a
trespasser on railroad property who is not a patron or an employee.
On the other hand, all the instances of tramps killed or injured on
the railroad are not recorded.

In a communication of August 2, 1922, to the Homeless Man
Committee, W. P. Riggs, chief special agent of the American Express
Company, says in part:

    On our more important exclusive trains we have inspectors
    employed to ride them for the purpose of keeping tramps and
    other unauthorized persons off such trains. As in the past
    we have suffered serious loss through such parties breaking
    into our sealed cars and robbing them. There have also been
    instances where parties under the guise of tramps beating
    their way around the country turned out to be real bandits,
    who would at the opportune time hold up the mail clerks and
    messengers.

    The tramp situation is the worst in this section during the
    spring, summer, and fall; yet we also have more or less
    trouble with them in winter months.

    Generally speaking, we do not receive much assistance from
    civil authorities in combatting tramps.

J. H. Hustin, Jr., superintendent of property protection for the
New York Central Railroad, writes the committee as follows:

    It is the endeavor of our police officers to keep the tramp
    off our right-of-way. Many of our freight trains on the
    Western territory are protected by police officers enroute
    between terminals, and it is part of their duty to keep
    such train riders off our trains. Usually the tramp is
    placed under arrest and taken before the local authorities
    for disposition.

    During the spring and fall we experience most of our
    difficulties with train riders, especially in connection
    with the opening and closing of navigation.

    In general, we receive the co-operation of the city
    authorities. When business is quiet and a large number of
    men are out of work, we obtain little direct assistance
    from the local police and courts; while, when business is
    good and there is little unemployment, such co-operation is
    very satisfactory.


THE CIVIL AUTHORITIES AND THE TRAMP

The average man on the street, or the average housewife, sees in
the tramp either a parasite or a predacious individual. The average
man may admit that there are many migratory men who would work, but
he feels that most of them will not, and that they have neither
permanent habits nor good intentions; they need to be watched. If
the public opinion decrees that the town needs to be protected
against tramps, it is the duty of the police to do it. There seems
to be a relation between the pressure that the police bring to
bear on the tramp and the pressure that the tramps impose upon the
community which is reflected in the pressure the residents place
on the police. In towns where vagrancy has become a problem, the
police are very energetic in keeping down the number of apparently
idle men.

In small towns, especially railroad towns, through which many
tramps move, the police are “hostile.” A policeman in a Wyoming
town on the Union Pacific Railroad asserts: “We’ve got to be hard
on these fellows or they will eat us out of house and home in
a week.” In the larger towns the police are sporadic in their
harshness. Men of the road will ask one another about the attitude
of the police in certain cities. “Omaha was good the first part
of the winter,” reported a man in a circle about a camp fire, “I
think I’ll go to Chi this winter if I don’t go to the Coast. I
heard they were pretty easy on them there last winter.” Again, “I
was in Chicago the most of the winter. They are all right there if
you stay on the ‘stem.’” “How has K. C. been lately? I haven’t been
there for five years.”

The average hobo will often avoid certain towns because he has
heard that the “bo” will not be well received. He will sometimes go
to a town even when he has heard of its drastic method of treating
the transients. A “hard” police force and a drastic policy of
repression do not keep tramps away. It selects out those who are
willing to run the risk. Timid and inexperienced men are kept away,
but the daring and veteran tramps who cause the police the most
trouble are not so readily frightened off.

The police do not regard the tramp as a serious offender. If he
steals, it is generally for something to eat or to wear. Every man
on the road steals potatoes or green corn from the nearby fields,
or fruit from the neighboring orchard, or chickens that stray
within reach of the jungle.

Tramps will boast about what they will do when times get hard and
cold weather crowds them. “I won’t starve. I worked all summer, and
I won’t go hungry this winter.” This man was “broke” in spite of
a summer’s hard labor in the harvest fields. His earnings quickly
went for drink. He did get hungry, and his clothes were torn to
tatters before spring, but he did not break in any windows as he
had threatened. There are “crooks” among the tramps, but not so
many as might be supposed. The average tramp does not possess the
courage to be a first-class crook.

Warden Wesley Westbrook, of the Cook County jail, supports this
estimate of the tramp as an offender:

    I am convinced that the tramp does not have the courage to
    be a criminal. He will steal something to eat or wear, and
    he may steal a door mat or some article he may sell for a
    quarter to get a coffee-an’; or, if he is drinking, to get
    the price of a pint of whiskey. But tramps do not become
    criminal in the serious sense. They make noise and threats
    sometimes but I have found them an easy group to get along
    with. It takes considerable courage to break into a house
    or to hold a person up and the tramp will not do this. He
    seems to think that he can get a living easier and with
    less risk.

But whether a major offender or not, the fact is that the homeless
man is almost always liable to arrest as a vagrant. He is marked
as a potential offender. He always faces the possibility of being
arrested on suspicion. Where the ex-convict is harassed by the
authorities because they have his record, the tramp is often held
because they do not have his record. Often migrants are taken from
freight trains and transported many miles to the scenes of some
offense only to be turned loose. Often they are held for days in
local jails until they can prove an alibi or their identity can be
established. For them there is no redress.

The status of the homeless man in the courts is not high. Again and
again men are arraigned before the judge for vagrancy, fighting,
drunkenness, begging, petty stealing, and other minor offenses.
Any policeman can walk along West Madison Street any day and
see some man or perhaps a dozen who could be arrested on some
charge. If all policemen did this the jails would be full and the
police courts in which these cases are tried would be continually
overflowing. Only the most conspicuous cases are arrested. Those
are numerous enough to keep an average judge busy in an average
police court.

The judge who sits in the Desplaines Street police court, where
more tramps are arraigned than in any other court in Chicago, faces
sometimes as many as 100 men whose cases must be disposed of within
a few hours. One morning the investigator visited Judge LaBuy’s
court in the Desplaines Street station and saw more than fifty
cases of vagrancy, disorderly conduct, drunkenness, etc., disposed
of in less than half an hour. There was little material at hand by
which the judge could arrive at a just decision, consequently he
disposed of the cases with only that evidence that was apparent.
Apparently neither the needs of the individual were being met nor
the demands of justice satisfied.[57]

The experiences of the tramp or hobo in the police court do not
increase his respect for the law and the administration of justice.
He finds the administration of justice a mechanical process. At
the points where the law touches his life it has lost every trace
of the human touch unless it be the brutal “third degree” or the
traditional “sixty days.” The courts sometimes put fear into his
heart but they do not reform him.

What status as a citizen does the hobo wish? His attitude toward
the police and his reaction toward the civil authorities that
represent organized society seem to be tempered with antipathy.
Most of the songs he sings are songs of protest. The organizations
to which he allies himself are antagonistic to things as they are.

In many ways, the migratory worker is “a man without a country.”
By the very nature of his occupation he is deprived of the ballot,
and liable when not at work to arrest for vagrancy and trespassing.
The public ignores him generally, but now and again pities or is
hostile to him. With no status in organized society, he longs for
a classless society where all inequalities shall be abolished. In
the I.W.W. and other radical organizations, he finds in association
with restless men of his own kind the recognition everywhere else
denied him.


FOOTNOTES:

[55] It must be remembered that the 400 include tramps in transit
who are, perhaps, the better and most fit of all the types.
At least there would be in such a group a greater number of
able-bodied men than in any 400 selected at random in the “stem” of
one of our cities. Again, 400 is not a sufficient number to permit
more than a tentative conclusion.

[56] From an unpublished study by the author of 400 tramps,
Document 115.

[57] Unpublished Document 80.




  PART IV

  HOW THE HOBO MEETS HIS PROBLEM




CHAPTER XII

PERSONALITIES OF HOBOHEMIA


Like other communities, Hobohemia has its eminent persons. In the
flux and flow of the life on the “main stem” certain individuals
are conspicuous. They are for the most part the soap-box orators,
the organizers and promoters of utopias. These men are the most
loved or the most hated of all the Hobohemian celebrities. They
are either overwhelmingly approved or are unsparingly condemned as
grafters and parasites. But whether exploiters or benefactors they
are centers of interest. They are powers. Among the many men of
this group are: James Eads How, Dr. Ben L. Reitman, John X. Kelly,
Michael C. Walsh, Daniel Horsley, and A. W. Dragstedt.

Outside of these leaders of the migratory workers are mission
workers, like Charles W. Langsman, of the Bible Rescue Mission; and
John Van de Water, of the Helping Hand Mission; and Brigadier J.
E. Atkins, of the Salvation Army, which is neither a mission nor a
church.

It has been the policy of the Baptist Church on North LaSalle
Street and the Immanuel Baptist Church on South Michigan Avenue
more than other churches to feed homeless men. Dr. Johnston Myers
is pastor of the latter church, and probably the most talked-of
minister in Hobohemia when times are hard. Dr. Myers is contrasted
by homeless men with the Greensteins on South State Street.
“Mother” Greenstein’s “bread line” is known the country over.

These or their counterparts may be found in any city where hobos
gather.


DR. JAMES EADS HOW, “THE MILLIONAIRE HOBO”

How, a man of wealth and education, renounced all to share the
lot of the hobos. He is not an imposing personality, but he is a
kindly, ingratiating, almost saintly man. He is a dreamer and a
visionary with a program for reforming the world. Every cent that
he does not spend for doughnuts and twenty-five-cent flops goes to
the “cause.” He hopes that other millionaires will see his good
works and imitate him.

How is a bachelor in his late forties. According to rumor, which
he neither affirms nor denies, he has two college degrees, one
of them in medicine. He plans soon to enter a college for a year
to study law, so as to be the better prepared to promote the
interests of the International Brotherhood Welfare Association and
the “Hobo College.” The I.W.W. believes the world will be reformed
by organization and direct action first, and education second.
How puts education first. He hopes to establish a central hobo
university to which the numerous hobo colleges in the large cities
will be feeders.

To How the hobos are a “chosen people” who have been denied their
own. They will come into their own in time. All his repeated
failures to build up a strong organization of migratory workers
have not shaken his faith in his vision. How still believes that
hobos and millionaires will sooner or later work together in
harmony to construct the House of Happiness for humanity.


DR. BEN L. REITMAN, “THE KING OF THE HOBOS”

With the exception of James Eads How, “the millionaire hobo,”
Reitman is known to more migratory workers than any other man in
the country. Several years ago, while he was roaming casually
over the United States, Reitman was dubbed by the papers the “King
of the Hobos.” This title was well earned by more than twenty years
on the road, including two or three tramps around the world.

[Illustration: DR. BEN L. REITMAN]

His own description of himself given to the papers several years
ago still holds:

    I am an American by birth, a Jew by parentage, a Baptist
    by adoption, a physician and teacher by profession,
    cosmopolitan by choice, a Socialist by inclination, a
    celebrity by accident, a tramp by twenty years’ experience,
    and a reformer by inspiration.

The only modification that he would make today is that he has
settled into the routine of his profession. He still lectures at
the “Hobo College.” He still intercedes for hobos and guarantees
their bills in case they do not make good. He is still a refuge
for the sick and afflicted and not a day passes that he does not
treat some down-and-outer free. He is still a reformer but he has
lost that “lean, hungry look” of his hobo days, and since he owns a
Ford, the hobos charge him with being an aristocrat.


JOHN X. KELLY, SOAP-BOXER AND ORGANIZER

John Kelly has been associated with James Eads How for more than
fifteen years. Before he met How he was a curbstone orator. Beating
his way from city to city, he has talked in the “slave markets” of
every metropolitan city in the United States. He has been jailed
many times for his “soap-boxing,” and has often been forced to
leave town between the suns because of free-speech fights. He has
often beaten his way 1,000 miles to be present at a hobo convention
and to participate in the demonstrations of the hobo against the
upper strata of society.

Kelly is still an organizer, though he is not an enthusiastic or
hopeful one. He still has faith, but he is no longer the staunch
advocate of democratic hobo organizations he formerly was. Years of
bitter experience have taught him that the average hobo will not
stand up under any responsibility. At one time he was an I.W.W.
soap-boxer, but he no longer believes that the “Wobblies” are doing
anything for the hobo, and he frankly tells them so.

From a champion of democracy, he has swung over to an advocate of
benevolent autocracy. He is still active in the “Hobo College,”
but is often at variance with How and opposes him bitterly on some
issues.

How, an idealist, has never learned that the ordinary hobo
organization is almost sure to fail if left to manage itself.
“But,” says Kelly, the organizer, “they’ll never succeed. They will
never be cured of quarreling over trifles. They have got to be
saved by some other method than their own power.”


MICHAEL C. WALSH, ORGANIZER AND PROMOTER

Walsh has long been a factor in the hobo life of Chicago. At
present he is the head of a struggling organization of workers
known as the United Brotherhood of American Laborers, which seeks
to organize workers around an insurance program. Walsh designates
himself “Journalist and Lecturer, Founder of the Famous Hobo
College,” “The Society of Vagabonds,” and “The Mary Garden Forum.”
He further styles himself, not without reason, a graduate of the
“University of Adversity.”

Left an orphan at an early age, he began wandering, working
casually at his trade as an iron-worker. He traveled extensively
over the United States and went abroad as a tramp worker and a
beach-comber. In 1906-7, becoming interested in the problem of
the down-and-outs, he conducted the Liberty Hotel in Seattle for
the unemployed. Later in San Francisco he was again active in the
interest of the unemployed. Still later he joined James Eads How
in St. Louis and aided in organizing the “penniless men of his own
city.” In 1915 he came to Chicago and organized the “Hobo College.”
Other hobos say that the “college” had been in existence years
before Walsh arrived on the scene, but that he did play a part in
making it popular.

Walsh, as president of the “college,” was able to attract the
assistance of many leading citizens. He won the services of Mary
Garden, who took special pride in singing there occasionally. He
has been active among the unemployed, and at one time attracted
considerable public notice which got him into disrepute with the
local police.

Walsh has also sought the limelight as a lyceum and chautauqua
lecturer. His subjects dealt with the various aspect of the hobo
problem. Walsh, like many of the hobo celebrities, only sees in
the tramp problem one cause, and that is, unemployment. “Give the
boys plenty of jobs and there will be no tramps.” This is a popular
interpretation among the tramps themselves.


DANIEL HORSLEY, “PROFESSOR” AND BOOKDEALER

Daniel Horsley is a bookseller. His establishment, at 1237 West
Madison Street, is called the hobo bookstore. The place is known
as the “Proletariat” to the men on the “stem.” Here many men who
have no other address receive their mail. Says one man, “Where is
---- lately, Dan?” “I don’t know, but I suppose he is on his way to
Chicago. I have had some mail for him for two weeks.” The men meet
their friends at the “Proletariat,” or they leave things there for
safekeeping. They all know Mr. Horsley, and he has the good will of
all the “bos.”

Horsley has been somewhat of a hobo himself, as the following
excerpt will show:

    My occupation during the past 14 years has carried me
    through many grades of labor. First, the coal mining
    industry was for many years my sole occupation. The miner,
    having more dangers to confront than most workers, does not
    last long. The industry claimed two of my brothers. After
    having received a dose of black damps (foul air), my health
    was not of the best so I decided the open air would be the
    most beneficial.

    I started with a picture machine to earn my living as I
    recuperated. I traveled through Nebraska, Dakota, Wyoming,
    Montana, and Alberta, Canada. In every small town we would
    generally come across some of the boys (hobos). Returning
    from the Northwest I came back East without the machine.
    I stayed a while in Iowa and then went back to the West.
    Previous to and during the war I was in the shipbuilding
    industry. Leaving there I worked for a short while in the
    woods but decided to come East again. Visiting the eastern
    seaboard I saw great industries closing down so I finally
    landed in Chicago.

Dan’s work is selling books and periodicals but he gets his
recreation by mounting the soap box occasionally. He is a devout
student of Marxian economics, and he likes nothing better than to
talk economics to an audience of workers. At the “Hobo College” he
is known as “professor,” and he gives lectures there now and then
on economics, or his other favorite topic, current history.

The _Hobo News_ has printed a number of his articles on economic
subjects. His writing, like his teaching and soap-boxing, is along
Marxian lines. He has little patience for anyone who sees things
differently. His hobby is education, and the book business gives
him a chance to get to the homeless man and all other workers the
kind of literature that he thinks will start them thinking.


A. W. DRAGSTEDT, “THE HOBO INTELLECTUAL”

Mr. Dragstedt is one of the numerous ex-secretaries of the “Hobo
College” for the year 1922-23. As secretary of the “college,” it
was his business to attend to the finances of the institution and
to manage the programs. It is the secretary’s job to find speakers
for various occasions, and to advertise the meetings. In short, the
secretary must be a diplomat and an executive. Dragstedt has all
the earmarks of a good hobo secretary.

Born in Sweden some forty years ago, he emigrated to this country
and settled in Montana before he was out of his teens. He did not
remain settled long, but went here and there in search of work
until he developed into a regular hobo. He has worked at nearly all
the migratory occupations and has seen nearly all the states of
the Union. He is now one of the seasoned veterans of the floating
fraternity. He is getting over his passion for travel, but he has
not yet learned to settle down. He still likes to feel that he is
free to go whenever the notion strikes him, although for a year or
so he has not gone very far from the city.

Dragstedt is a man of wide and varied experience, but he seldom can
be persuaded to talk about himself. He did his bit in the late war
and went as far as France. Most hobos who have been across like
to tell about it, but not he. But Dragstedt talks. He has ideas
and he talks about them. He has a great many ideas, some of them
consistent and others not, but they keep him occupied and he is
generally keeping someone else interested. He is a type of the hobo
intellectual.

As a high brow, Dragstedt is a poet of no mean ability. His poems
either protest against the “system” or idealize tramp life. He is
also an artist. The walls of the “Hobo College” are adorned with
samples of his workmanship such as cartoons and decorated placards.
He has an ambition to become a cartoonist, but he is a hobo, and
hobos are men who will not apply themselves. He has two or three
scenarios that might be developed into fair picture plays, but he
will not go back to them to polish them up. This calls for more
application than he cares to give. In this, again, he is a hobo,
but he does not grieve about that.


CHARLES W. LANGSMAN, EXPONENT OF LOVE

Recently, Superintendent Langsman celebrated his twentieth
spiritual birthday. For twenty years he has been connected with the
Bible Rescue Mission. Before he became converted, to use his words,
he was an “ordinary bad man of the street.” He has lived the life
of the tramp. He knows hobos from the human side. He knows their
weaknesses, their temptations, and their trials. For twenty years
he has worked with them to aid them. Hundreds of men have been
lifted out of the quicksands of a transient and aimless life by
him, while he has inspired thousands to make an effort.

In his official capacity he is the superintendent of the Bible
Rescue Mission. He is also vice-president of the midwest district
of the International Mission Union. To the men on the street he is
known as “Charley.” No mission man in Chicago is better known.

The Bible Rescue Mission is the only one that feeds men the year
around. Mr. Langsman feels that hungry men need food just as much
in summer as in winter. To him feeding is an evidence of the spirit
of Christianity. Because of this policy of feeding, he has been
severely criticized by the homeless men themselves and by missions.
Many of the “bos” say that “Charley” has a “doughnut philosophy.”
They maintain that religion is not worth much if it can only get
into a man’s heart through his stomach. These criticisms come back
to Superintendent Langsman, but they have not changed his policy.

One of Langsman’s hobbies is a homeless man’s picnic each year.
When “Charley” stages a picnic it is a gala day for West Madison
Street. All the “boys” come out for a ride to the country in trucks
furnished by various firms and to eat sandwiches provided by the
churches.


JOHN VAN DE WATER, THE FRIEND OF THE DESERVING

The Helping Hand Mission at 850 West Madison Street is essentially
a family mission with Sunday-school, parents’ classes, and other
auxiliary activities. It does not, however, neglect the homeless
man. Superintendent John Van de Water, for the last eight years
superintendent of the Helping Hand Mission, is one of the few
practical men in the mission work. Throughout the winter his
organization feeds, upon an average, 100 men a day. However, no
one is fed who will not work. He operates a wood yard and any
able-bodied man who asks for aid is given a chance to work. His is
the only mission that has such a test.

Mr. Van de Water does not care for converts that must be “bought”
with doughnuts and coffee, and he has little patience with the
missions imposed upon by men who become converted only for a
place to sleep or something to eat. He is in favor of concerted
action among missions, because where they work separately they lay
themselves open to exploitation.

The homeless man is often an ungrateful individual, but Mr. Van
de Water feels that more than a fourth of the men aided really
appreciate the help they get. Many men prefer the mission floor
in cold weather to the floor in the “flophouse,” which is seldom
scrubbed.


BRIGADIER J. E. ATKINS AND THE SALVATION ARMY HOTELS

Most exploited and least loved by the hobos is the Salvation Army.
But the Salvation Army does more for the hobo than any other
agency. In every city of the country it is the “good Samaritan” to
the down-and-outs. Not only is it interested in working upon the
hearts of men, but it seeks to help people to walk alone. One of
the pioneers in this program of practical salvation is Brigadier J.
E. Atkins.

Brigadier Atkins, a native of Wales, enlisted with the Salvation
Army forty-three years ago. He was sent to this country in 1886 as
a worker at the time when the first split occurred in the ranks. At
that time he was a regular officer in the ranks, and later became
a division officer. Before the war he was placed in charge of the
Salvation Army industrial work in Denver, Kansas City, and Des
Moines.

He entered the army as a chaplain, and was assigned to the
first division. He was attached to “Young Teddy” Roosevelt’s
organization, and as a consequence saw considerable action. In this
capacity he spent twenty-one months overseas, serving with his
organization in all its major offensives. Twice he was gassed, and,
as a result, his voice has been permanently impaired.

Since his discharge from the army, Brigadier Atkins has been in
charge of the four Salvation Army hotels for men in Chicago which
cater to the superior class of homeless men. These hotels are
operated on the usual Salvation Army business-like basis. The
policy is to make them pay their way, if possible, but not to
charge prices greater than the commercial hotels. It is the Atkins
aim to give all the service that is consistent with the price: to
keep the price as low as possible, and to keep the places clean and
orderly. He is insistent on getting clean, sober guests in the Army
hotels, and no apparently clean, sober man without funds need go
away. The contrary is said to be true by many “bos,” but they are
generally men who have been “found out.”


DR. JOHNSTON MYERS AND THE IMMANUEL PLAN

    We have knocked out the heavy stone barrier which stood
    between us and the people and placed in its stead a glass,
    business, inviting front, bearing such announcements
    as, “We worship, we heal, we clothe, we feed, we find
    employment for those in need”; “Your friends are inside,
    come in.” Between five hundred and one thousand people
    accept this invitation daily. We are prepared to meet and
    help them.

This is what Dr. Myers has done with a typical, forbidding,
gray-stone church, the Immanuel Baptist Church, at 2320 Michigan
Avenue. For twenty-seven years he has been pastor of this church,
and all that time he has been adhering to the Immanuel plan
outlined above. For ten years previous to his coming to the
Immanuel Church, he was pastor of the Ninth Street Baptist Church
of Cincinnati, where he followed this scheme of serving humanity as
well as God.

Dr. Myers is a practical religionist. He is bringing religion out
of the clouds, and has made it an everyday, functioning affair.
In his mind it does not hurt a church to have a kitchen in the
basement nor to operate a restaurant in the building. His church
serves an excellent meal for thirty cents. Many of the workers in
the automobile salesrooms and the students from the medical college
near by are in the habit of taking lunch at the church.

Most of the churches in the business area have closed their
doors, but the Immanuel Baptist is more conspicuous today than
ever before. The business men on the street are proud of it. They
contributed recently to help rebuild it after the steeple had been
blown down by a gale. The church does not serve its members as it
used to, because most of the families have moved away and now most
of its congregation is composed of homeless men.

Dr. Myers does not try to preach to the men, nor does he try to
use the material aid he gives as a means of coaxing men to become
converted. He does not believe in such conversions. He and his
staff have learned that the average homeless man cannot hold money.
The men who apply know this too. “Johnston Myers will feed anyone
but it is pretty hard to get any ‘jack’ from him.”


THE GREENSTEINS AND “MOTHER’S RESTAURANT”

Few hobos enter Chicago who have not heard of “Mother” Greenstein.
For years Mother and Father Greenstein ran a saloon on South State
Street. It was a barrel-house and the “bos” flocked to it when they
had money. It was one of the few saloons in that area that was
on “the square.” Among the hobos it is asserted that “Mother” is
the richest woman in Chicago. But her wealth has not changed her
habits. She reared a family of seven children, and most of them
have gone through college and into business for themselves. The
Greensteins are proud of their family, but no less proud of their
work. With the coming of prohibition, they closed the saloon and
opened a restaurant on the corner of Ninth and State streets.

The place is known as “Mother’s Restaurant,” and it is one of the
few places in Hobohemia that has the right to write “Home Cooking”
on the window. Day after day “Mother” is on the job, cooking steaks
and chops and French-fried potatoes, while “Father” waits table
and serves at the bar. Mother lives in her work. She is proud of
her kitchen, and she likes to serve hungry men. The hobos say no
chef in the Blackstone or Drake can prepare more savory dishes. The
Greensteins did not earn their reputation by serving hungry men who
could pay their way, but by serving the penniless and hungry at
times when it is hard for hungry men to get food.

A sign is painted on the wall outside the restaurant: “Mother’s
Restaurant. Don’t Go Hungry. See Mother.” Last winter another sign
placed in the window read: “Attention! Starting Monday, Dec. 20
[1921], ‘Mother’ Will Serve Hot Coffee and Rolls Free ... from 5
A.M. to 7 A.M.” Some mornings the bread line at 901 South State
Street contained as many as 500 men who were out to get a bowl of
coffee and something to eat, but none were ever turned away. There
is always plenty of bread and plenty of coffee, and good coffee,
too.

The hobos do appreciate “Mother.” The old-timers of South State
Street swear by her.


HOBO LEADERSHIP

This rapid sketch of a few persons in the _Who’s Who_ of Hobohemia
gives a picture of the local leadership among the homeless men. All
these persons, and many others who embody either the aspirations of
the hobos or the organized religious and philanthropic impulses of
the larger community toward the migrant, must be taken into account
in any fundamental policy and program for his welfare. All these
leaders are dealing with the homeless man as a human being, that
is, with his personal needs, his memories, and his hopes. Working
with these leaders, the social agencies may secure both insight
into his attitudes and wishes and his co-operation for his own
well-being.




CHAPTER XIII

THE INTELLECTUAL LIFE OF THE HOBO


The homeless man is an extensive reader. This is especially true
of the transients, the tramp, and the hobo. The tramp employs his
leisure to read everything that comes his way. If he is walking
along the railroad track, he picks up the papers that are thrown
from the trains; he reads the cast-off magazines. If he is in the
city, he hunts out some quiet corner where he may read. The tramp
is a man with considerable leisure, but few books.

The libraries are open to them, but comparatively few use them.
Public libraries are generally imposing structures and, dressed as
he usually is, the tramp hesitates to enter them. Dan Horsley, who
is a newsdealer and runs a bookstore on West Madison, in an article
in the _Hobo News_ for October, 1922, writes:

    Just as a hobo would feel out of place in a Fifth Avenue
    church, so he would feel in the average library. He does
    not make general use of the libraries because of the
    menacing fear of the law. He is always watching lest he
    be caught as a vagrant, and this prevents him seeking
    recreative study; so he gets his own literature to read and
    seeks some quiet place.

There are men in the hobo class who are not deterred by these
scruples. Some of the most persistent users of the library have
been initiated during the winter time when they were forced inside
for shelter. The newspaper reading-room of the Chicago Public
Library has become for them a favorite retreat during the cold
winter days. It is also a good resting place in the hot summer
months.

Lodging-houses sometimes have reading-rooms in which guests may
find the local newspapers and current periodicals. Such reading
material is usually extensively read and much thumb-marked. Most
lodging-houses and rooming-houses do not provide reading matter for
their guests. Seldom does a tramp throw away a paper. He passes
it on to someone else, and after it has served its usefulness
as reading matter, he may use it at night for a bed either in a
“flophouse” or a park, along the docks, or in box cars.

The hobo reads the daily papers but does not indorse them. He looks
with disapproval upon the so-called “capitalist” press. If he
belongs to the radicals he is sure that the press is against him.
But in spite of this he reads it. He reads it for the news.

Radical papers, to be sure, are steadfast in their efforts to
promote his interests and champion his cause, but it is a cause
that is so well known to the homeless man that it has lost its
novelty. There are many radical papers. Among them are the _Weekly
People_, the _Truth_, the _Industrial Solidarity_, the _Worker_,
the _Hobo News_, the _Liberator_, the _Voice of Labor_. These
are not printed primarily for the homeless man, but have a wide
circulation among the so-called “slum proletariat.”

The homeless man reads a certain amount of religious literature,
but little of it is perused in the spirit hoped for by the mission
worker or street evangelist. He reads it because it is handed to
him and it kills time.

Short-story magazines are popular. Next to short-story magazines
would come railroad or engineering journals and other magazines
dealing with popular mechanics.

[Illustration: MEMBERS OF THE JEFFERSON PARK INTELLIGENTSIA]

[Illustration: THE HOBO READS PROGRESSIVE LITERATURE]

Sex stories are, of course, popular. The tramp has a preference for
books of adventure and action. Jack London is the most widely read
of novelists among the “bos.” Books on mechanics, _How to Run an
Automobile_, _Uses of the Steel Square_, _Block Signal Systems_,
_Gas Engines_, have a wide sale.

Works on phrenology, palmistry, Christian Science, hypnotism, and
the secrets of the stars, etc., are of perennial interest. Joke
books and books explaining tricks with cards or riddles, detective
stories, and books in the field of the social sciences are
surprisingly popular. Bookstores patronized by tramps keep in stock
special pocket-size editions of works on sociology, economics,
politics, and history. The radical periodicals recommend books to
the serious-minded hobo reader. Following is a list from the _Hobo
News_:

  _Easy Outlines on Economics_, by Noah Ablett
  _A Worker Looks at History_, by Mark Starr
  _Philosophical Essays; Positive Outlines of Philosophy_, by J.
         Dietzgen

Among the books recommended for the proletariat in the I.W.W.
literature list for April, 1922, are the following:

  _The Ancient Lowly_, C. Osborne Ward
  _Ancient Society_, Lewis H. Morgan
  _Capital_, Karl Marx
  _Capital Today_, Herman Cahn
  _The Economic Causes of War_, Achille Loria
  _Essays on the Materialistic Conception of History_, Antonio
         Labriola
  _Evolution of Man_, Wilhelm Boelache
  _Evolution of Property_, Paul Lafargue
  _Social and Philosophical Studies_, Paul Lafargue
  _Stories of the Great Railroads_, Charles Edward Russell
  _The Universal Kinship_, J. Howard Moore
  _History of Great American Fortunes_, Gustavus Myers
  _History of the Supreme Courts_, Gustavus Myers
  _Origin of the Family; Private Property and the State_, Frederick
         Engels
  _The History of the I.W.W._, Frederic Brissenden

These books are kept in stock at the I.W.W. headquarters and
extensively sold and read by the intellectuals. Soap-box orators
get fuel for the fires they seek to kindle from books of this sort.
It is common knowledge on the “stem” that one can tell the books
a speaker reads by the opinions he expresses and the programs he
favors.


THE HOBO WRITER

The hobo who reads sooner or later tries his hand at writing. A
surprisingly large number of them eventually realize their ambition
to get into print. It is not unusual to meet a man of the road with
a number of clippings in his pocket of articles he has contributed
to the daily press. Most of the great dailies have columns that are
accessible to the free-lance writer, and the pages of the radical
press are always open to productions of the hobo pen. Most of these
contributions are in the form of letters to editors. One man who
writes many such letters proudly exhibited an article recently
published in the _Chicago Daily Tribune_. It was signed “F. W. B.”
He explained that these letters stood for “Fellow Worker Block.”
That was his nom de plume.

The hobo writer does not concern himself with letters alone. A
number of them are ambitious to become novelists, essayists, and
even dramatists. Some of these men have manuscripts that they have
carried about with them for years in search of a publisher. One
such author, an old man, said: “I have material enough together
to write a book. All I want is to get someone to help me organize
it. I want someone to go over it with me. You see, I never had
much schooling and my grammar is not very good.” Another man
carried about a great roll of manuscript which purported to be a
“society novel.” It was entitled _The Literary in Literature_. It
was written in lead pencil and represented the accumulated effort
of several years. When the mood struck him, he added a chapter or
a paragraph. Before the last page had been written, however, the
first was so badly dimmed from being carried around that it could
not be deciphered.

Some hobo writers have visions of a financial success that will
put them on “easy street.” One man offered to share the proceeds
from the publications of a series of essays on economics if the
investigator would typewrite it. “Why, this will bring thousands of
dollars,” he said. “If I can only get a publisher interested, but,”
he added, “they don’t seem to care for live subjects.”

Another hobo writes songs and has the same difficulty with
publishers. He still feels, after hundreds of failures, that he
will eventually get into the limelight.

The hobo writer who plies the pen for the love of it is not
unusual. One man has been working on a play for several months.
He cannot get anyone interested, but that has not quenched
his enthusiasm. Another man spends most of his leisure on the
north side of Hobohemia, writing fantastic paragraphs. They are
interesting and amusing. He does not try to publish them. He writes
them because he enjoys it. Most numerous of the hobo writers are
the propagandists and dreamers. They are the chief contributors to
the rebel press. Many of them care to be identified with no other.
They are not artists nor do they write for gain. They have little
patience for the writer who lives for the so-called “filthy lucre.”

But whatever their motive, most of these hobo writers, for the
want of a better medium, become contributors to the radical press.
Without them radical sheets like the I.W.W. publications and the
_Hobo News_ would not appeal to the homeless man. The radical press
in turn serves as a pattern by which hobo writers fashion and color
their literary productions.


THE “INDUSTRIAL SOLIDARITY”

The _Industrial Solidarity_ is a typical I.W.W. paper. It comes
nearer than any other I.W.W. paper to reflecting the mind and the
spirit of the average hobo. It is a six- or eight-page weekly and
sells for five cents. It is published in Chicago from where it is
distributed to individual subscribers or in bundles to the peddlers
or newsdealers.

The issue of July 1, 1922, contains the following articles:

    In bold headlines across the front page under the caption,
    “Company Brought on Herrin Mine War” is a detailed
    narrative of the whole affair written by George Williams
    who is supposed to have been an eye-witness. This article
    contains four full columns, two of them on the front page.
    Another front-page article is devoted to the freeing of
    political prisoners. It has special reference to the
    fifty-two I.W.W. in Leavenworth who refused to ask the
    President for pardon. The article is headed, “Hundreds of
    Cities in Million Signature Petition Drive.” The slogan
    was “Let Them Go Free.” Attorney-General Daugherty, who
    at best is not popular with the floating population, is
    shown in a cartoon on the front page marching in a parade
    carrying a banner on which is inscribed, “Please, Let Morse
    out of Prison.” Over the cartoon is written the ironical
    legend, which harks back to some remark that had been used
    against the “Wobblies,” “This is no Children’s Crusade.”

    Considerable space is devoted to the spring drive for
    membership. At the time of the publication of this number
    the drive was on in full blast in the harvest fields where
    the so-called “slugging committees” were out enrolling
    members. One long article was published telling of
    “conditions” in Kansas and Oklahoma where the Ku Klux Klan
    was offering active opposition to the I.W.W. The articles
    had been sent in by some “bo” who told in detail how the
    “Wobblies” outwitted the “town clowns,” or local police,
    and the K.K.K.

According to the I.W.W. literature list for April, 1922, the
following periodicals are issued regularly:

  ==================+===========+===========+==========+=============
  Name              | Issued    |   Where   | No. Each |   Language
                    |           | Published |  Issue   |
  ------------------+-----------+-----------+----------+-------------
  _Industrial       |           |           |          |
       Solidarity_  | Weekly    |  Chicago  |  12,000  |   English
  _Industrial       |           |           |          |
       Worker_      | Weekly    |  Seattle  |  10,000  |   English
  _Industrial       |           |           |          |
       Unionist_    | Bi-weekly |  New York |   (?)    |   English
  _Golos Truzenika_ | Bi-weekly |  Chicago  |   3,000  |   Russian
  _A Felszabadulas_ | Weekly    |  Chicago  |   5,000  |  Hungarian
  _Il Proletario_   | Weekly    |  Chicago  |   6,000  |   Italian
  _Solidaridad_     | Weekly    |  Chicago  |   5,500  |   Spanish
  _Rahotnicheska    |           |           |          |
       Mysl_        | Weekly    |  Chicago  |   2,800  |  Bulgarian
  _Muncitorul_      | Bi-weekly |  Chicago  |   4,200  |  Roumanian
  _Jedna Velka Unie_| Monthly   |  Chicago  |   2,700  |Czecho-Slovak
  _Tie Vapauteen_   | Monthly   |  Chicago  |   7,000  |   Finnish
  _Industrialisti_  | Daily     |  Duluth   |  16,000  |   Finnish
  _Snaga Radnika_   | Bi-weekly |  Duluth   |   3,500  |   Croatian
  ------------------+-----------+-----------+----------+-------------

“Wobbly” papers are extensively used as lesson sheets. _Solidarity_
has one long article of this character which is an analysis
and criticism of craft unionism. Finally, there are several
communications from members on the road and four or five
editorials on questions of the day.

The _Solidarity_ is only one of a number of I.W.W. publications,
but the most important as far as the hobos are concerned. The
organization maintains a publishing company of its own, the Equity
Press, which is situated at the I.W.W. headquarters in Chicago.


THE “HOBO NEWS”

The _Hobo News_, published in St. Louis, contains sixteen pages and
carries no advertising. It is published monthly and sells for ten
cents. It is distributed, like _Solidarity_, by bundle orders or
subscription.

The July, 1922, issue of the _Hobo News_ has the following contents:

    An article by Laura Irwin entitled, “Half Dead (Unnecessary
    Movement a Crime).” It laments the fact that more care
    is given to machines and animals than to men by the big
    interests. Another article is a reprint entitled, “Hobos
    in Missouri.” It is a description of life on the road.
    Daniel Horsley, a Chicagoan, has an article on “Hobo Life
    and Death: Something to Think About.” It is a discussion
    of the struggle for existence. There is also a short story
    entitled “Callahans’s Castle” depicting jungle pastimes.

    Under the heading “Near Poetry” are several short poems
    by different hobo contributors. Some of the titles are:
    “History,” “Adrift,” “To a Hobo,” “Labor’s March,” “Our
    Boss,” “The Hobo: of Course,” and “The Glory of Toil.”
    Several letters to the editor deal with subjects of general
    interest to the hobos. The editor writes on the prospects
    for work the coming winter. There are two cartoons. One
    shows the figure of a worker hewn out of stone at the top
    of a mountain. He is being assailed by politicians and
    capitalists. Over the cartoon is this legend, “These Shall
    Not Prevail against Him.” Another cartoon shows a tramp
    waiting at the water tank. A train is approaching in the
    distance. It is entitled, “The Regular Stop.”

No class of men are in a better position to know life than the
migratory population. These men have a large fund of experience,
but they do not seem to have developed any sense of the relative
values. With all this experience and with all these contacts with
life, they are not able to interpret it. The intellectuals are
obsessed by the class struggle, and instead of writing literature,
they prefer to repeat the formulas and play with the mental toys
which the doctrinaire reformers and revolutionists have fashioned
for them.

We cannot say therefore that the radical press in monopolizing
the hobo pens has robbed art. Among all these contributors to the
radical publications, there are few who might produce literature.
Many of them do not have patience to write literature nor the
courage to formulate a new idea. They prefer to ride a hobby and
repeat familiar formulas.

Writers who do find themselves do not remain in the hobo class.
Others have the ability to rise, but because of drink or drugs are
unable to do so. These men may find a place on the staff of one of
the radical papers. They may even aspire to an editorship. Such a
goal is not uncommon among the intellectuals. The _Hobo News_ is
one paper that the hobo writer likes to be identified with because
it is more than a doctrinaire propagandist sheet. It maintains some
literary features, and every issue has one or more articles or
poems that portray hobo life.




CHAPTER XIV

HOBO SONGS AND BALLADS


Much so-called hobo verse which has found its way into print was
not written by tramps, but by men who knew enough of the life of
the road to enable them to interpret its spirit. The best hobo
poems have been written behind prison bars. Many of the songs of
the I.W.W. have been written in jail.

The poetry most popular among the men on the road are ballads
describing some picturesque and tragic incident of the hobo’s
adventurous life. The following by an unknown author illustrates
the type. Here is an incident told in the language of the road in a
manner that every “bo” can understand and appreciate.

THE GILA MONSTER ROUTE

      The lingering sunset across the plain
      Kissed the rear end of an east-bound train,
      And shone on the passing track close by
      Where a dingbat sat on a rotten tie.

      He was ditched by the “shack,” and cruel fate,
      The “con” highballed, and the manifest freight,
      Pulled out on the stem behind the mail,
      And beat it east on a sanded rail.

      As she pulled away in the fading night
      He could see the gleam of her red tail lights.
      Then the moon arose, and the stars came out;
      He was ditched on the Gila Monster Route.

      There was nothing in sight but sand and space;
      No chance for a bo to feed his face;
      Not even a shack to beg for a lump.
      Nor a hen house there to frisk for a gump.

      As he gazed far out on the solitude
      He dropped his head and began to brood.
      He thought of the time he lost his pal
      In the hostile berg of Stockton, Cal.

      They had mooched the stem and threw their feet,
      And speared four bits on which to eat;
      But deprived themselves of their daily bread,
      And sluffed the coin for dago-red.

      Then, down by the tracks, in the jungle’s glade,
      On the cool, green grass in the tule’s shade,
      They shed their coats, and ditched their shoes,
      And tanked up full of that colored booze.

      Then, they took a flop with their hides plumb full,
      And did not hear the harness bull,
      Till he shook them out of their boozy nap,
      With a husky voice and a loaded sap.

      They were charged with vag, for they had no kale,
      And the judge said sixty days in jail;
      But the john had a bundle, the worker’s plea,
      So he gave him a floater and set him free.

      They had turned him out, but ditched his mate,
      So he grabbed the guts of an east-bound freight;
      He had held his form to the rusty rods
      Till the brakeman hollered, “Hit the sod.”

      So the bo rolled off and in the ditch,
      With two switch lights and a rusty switch,
      A poor, old, seedy, half-starved bo
      On a hostile pike without a show.

      Then all at once from out of the dark
      Came the short, sharp notes of a coyote’s bark;
      The bo looked up and quickly rose,
      And shook the dust from his threadbare clothes.

      Far off in the west through the moonlight night
      He saw the gleam of a big head light;
      An east-bound stock run hummed the rail,
      It was due at the switch to clear the mail.

      As she pulled up close the head-end “shack”
      Threw the switch to the passing track,
      The stock rolled in and off the main,
      The line was clear for the west-bound train.

      As she hove in sight far up the track,
      She was working steam with the brake shoes slack;
      Whistling once at the whistling post,
      She flittered by like a frightened ghost.

      You could hear the roar of the big six wheel,
      As the drivers pounded the polished steel,
      And the screech of the flanges on the rail,
      As she beat it west o’er the desert trail.

      The john got busy and took a risk,
      He climbed aboard and began to frisk,
      He reached up high and began to feel
      For an end-door pin, then he cracked a seal.

      ’Twas a double-deck stock loaded with sheep;
      The john got in and went to sleep;
      The “con” highballed, and she whistled out,
      They were off--down the Gila Monster Route.

The following ballad by Harry Kemp, the “tramp poet,” describes a
situation that is familiar to those who know Hobohemia. Many men
in the tramp class, to escape cold and hunger, have yielded to a
similar temptation.

THE TRAMP CONFESSION

      We huddled in the mission
        Fer it was cold outside
      And listened to the preacher
        Tell of the Crucified;

            Without a sleety drizzle
              Cut deep each ragged form,
            An’ so we stood the talkin’
              Fer shelter from the storm.

      They sang of Gods and Angels
        An’ Heaven’s eternal joy
      An’ things I stopped believin’
        When I was still a boy;

            They spoke of good an’ evil
              An’ offered savin’ grace
            An’ some showed love for mankind
              Ashinin’ in their face.

      An’ some their graft was workin’
        The same as me and you;
      But some was urgin’ on us
        What they believed was true.

            We sang an’ dozed an’ listened,
              But only feared, us men
            The time when, service over,
              We’d have to mooch again.

      An’ walk the icy pavements,
        An’ breast the snow storm gray,
      Till the saloons was opened,
        An’ there was hints of day.

            So, when they called out, “Sinners,
              Won’t you come?” I came....
            But in my face was pallor
              An’ in my heart was shame....
            An’ so fergive me, Jesus,
              Fer mockin’ of thy name.

      Fer I was cold an’ hungry;
        They gave me food and bed
      After I kneeled there with them,
        An’ many prayers was said.

            An’ so fergive me, Jesus,
              I didn’t mean no harm....
            Fer outside it was zero
              An’ inside it was warm.

      Yes, I was cold an’ hungry
        An’ Oh, Thou Crucified,
      Thou Friend of all the Lowly,
        Fergive the lie I lied.[58]


WANDERLUST

Many men have seen charms in the life on the road; Walt Whitman
and Vachel Lindsay are or were tramp poets. For men who cannot
endure the security and the tyranny of convention, this care-free
existence has an irresistible appeal. The following swinging poem
by H. H. Knibbs vibrates with the call of the road.

NOTHING TO DO BUT GO

      I’m the wandering son with the nervous feet,
      That never were meant for a steady beat;
      I’ve had many a job for a little while,
      I’ve been on the bum and I’ve lived in style;
      And there was the road, stretchin’ mile after mile,
      And nothing to do but go.

      So, beat it, Bo, while your feet are mates;
      Take a look at the whole United States;
      There’s the little fire and the pipe at night;
      And up again when the morning’s bright;
      With nothin’ but road and sky in sight,
      And nothin’ to do but go.

      So, beat it, Bo, while the goin’s good,
      While the birds in the trees are sawin’ wood;
      If today ain’t the finest for you and me,
      Then there’s tomorrow that’s going to be,
      And the day after that, that’s comin’, see,
      And nothin’ to do but go.

      Then beat it, Bo, while you’re young and strong;
      See all you can, for it won’t last long;
      You can tarry for only a little spell,
      On the long, gray road to Fare-Ye-Well,
      That leads to Heaven or maybe Hell,
      And nothin’ to do but go.[59]

“Away from Town,” by Harry Kemp, is a vivid picture of the
springtime yearning that the hobo feels to be off to the country
after spending the winter in the city’s slums. Not all tramps who
feel, with the passing of winter, the urge to move, are enticed
from the “gaunt, gray city” in search of “country cheer,” but
a goodly number love the grass and shade and a season in the
“jungles.” It is the same call that makes truants of school boys
and fishermen of staid business men.

      High perched upon a box-car, I speed, I speed today;
      I leave the gaunt, gray city some good, green miles away,
      A terrible dream in granite, a riot of streets and brick
      A frantic nightmare of people until the soul turns sick--
      Such is the high, gray city with the live green waters ’round
      Oozing up from the Ocean, slipping in from the Sound.
      I’d put up in the Bowery for nights in a ten-cent bed
      Where the dinky “L” trains thunder and rattle overhead;
      I’d traipsed the barren pavements with pain of frost in my
            feet;
      I’d sidled to hotel kitchens and asked for something to eat.
      But when the snow went dripping, and the young spring came as
            one
      Who weeps because of the winter, laughs because of the sun
      I thought of a limpid brooklet that bickers through weeds all
            day,
      And I made a streak for the ferry, and rode across in a dray,
      And dodged into the Erie where they bunt the box cars round.
      I peeled my eye for detectives, and boarded an outward bound.
      For you know when a man’s been cabined in walls for part of a
            year,
      He longs for a place to stretch in, he hankers for country
            cheer.[60]


POEMS OF PROTEST

In spite of its transient charms, the life of the tramp is a hard
one. It is fine to be free, but it is good to have a home. The
hobo likes freedom, but is not satisfied to be an Ishmaelite. His
speeches and his poetry are filled with protests against the social
order which refuses to make a place for him; against the system
that makes him an outcast.

The following poem entitled “The Dishwasher” was written by Jim
Seymour, the “Hobo poet.” The second half, omitted here, is a
prophecy of the overthrow of the “system.”

      Alone in the kitchen, in grease laden steam,
      I pause for a moment--a moment to dream:
      For even a dishwasher thinks of a day,
      Wherein there’ll be leisure for rest and for play.
      And now that I pause, o’er the transom there floats,
      A strain of the Traumerei’s soul stirring notes.
      Engulfed in a blending of sorrow and glee,
      I wonder that music can reach even me.

      But now I am thinking; my brain has been stirred.
      The voice of a master, the lowly has heard.
      The heart breaking sobs of the sad violin,
      Arouse the thoughts of the sweet might have been.
      Had men been born equal, the use of their brain,
      Would shield them from poverty: free them from pain,
      Nor would I have sunk into the black social mire,
      Because of poor judgment in choosing a sire.

      But now I am only a slave of the mill,
      That plies and remodels me just as it will;
      That makes me a dullard in brain burning heat;
      That looks at rich viands not daring to eat;
      That works with his red, blistered hands ever stuck,
      Down deep in the foul indescribable muck;
      Where dishes are plunged seventeen at a time;
      And washed in a tubful of sickening slime.

      But on with your clatter; no more must I shirk.
      The world is to me but a nightmare of work.
      For me not the music, the laughter and song;
      For no toiler is welcome amid the gay throng.
      For me not the smiles of the ladies who dine;
      Nor the sweet, clinging kisses, begotten of wine.
      For me but the venting of low, sweated groans,
      That twelve hours a night have instilled in my bones.

Arturo Giovannitti won his reputation as a poet by a poem in blank
verse which pictures the monotony of prison life. “The Walker” was
written in jail, as was “The Bum,” the poem by which Giovannitti
is best known among the hobos. As an I.W.W. and a radical, his
writings breathe the spirit of protest. “The Bum,” the first three
verses of which follow, is an eloquent tirade against religion:

      The dust of a thousand roads, the grease
        And grime of slums, were on his face;
      The fangs of hunger and disease
        Upon his throat had left their trace;
      The smell of death was in his breath,
        But in his eye no resting place.

      Along the gutters, shapeless, fagged,
        With drooping head and bleeding feet,
      Throughout the Christmas night he dragged,
        His care, his woe, and his defeat;
      Till, gasping hard, with face downward
        He fell upon the trafficked street.

      The midnight revelry aloud
        Cried out its glut of wine and lust
      The happy, clean, indifferent crowd
        Passed him in anger and disgust:
      For--fit or rum--he was a bum,
        And if he died ’twas nothing lost.[61]

In the following poem, by an unknown writer, “The Bum on the Rods
and the Bum on the Plush” states the case of labor against capital
in the language and accents of the hobo:

      The bum on the rods is hunted down
        As the enemy of mankind,
      The other is driven around to his club
        Is feted, wined, and dined.
      And they who curse the bum on the rods
        As the essence of all that is bad,
      Will greet the other with a winning smile,
        And extend the hand so glad.

      The bum on the rods is a social flea
        Who gets an occasional bite,
      The bum on the plush is a social leech,
        Blood-sucking day and night.
      The bum on the rod is a load so light
        That his weight we scarcely feel,
      But it takes the labor of dozens of men
        To furnish the other a meal.

      As long as you sanction the bum on the plush
        The other will always be there,
      But rid yourself of the bum on the plush
        And the other will disappear.
      Then make an intelligent, organized kick,
        Get rid of the weights that crush.
      Don’t worry about the bum on the rods,
        Get rid of the bum on the plush.

The following verses are taken from a selection written by Henry A.
White, who is a veteran of the road and for many years connected
with the publication of the _Hobo News_. It is entitled “The Hobo
Knows.” In it one can detect an unfamiliar note of resignation, the
resignation of an old man who has hoped and struggled, and learned.

      He knows the whirr of the rolling wheels,
        And their click on the time-worn joints;
      His ear is attuned to the snap and snarl
        Of the train, at the rickety points.

      He knows the camp by the side of the road,
        And the “java” and “mulligan” too;
      The siding long, and the water tank
        Are as home to me and you.

      He knows the fright of hunger and thirst,
        And of cold and of rain as well;
      Of raggedy clothes and out-worn shoes,
        An awful tale he can tell.

      He knows what it means to slave all day,
        And at night eat the vilest of fare;
      What a tale he can tell of loathsome bunks,
        Cramped quarters, and noisome air.

      He knows what the end of it all will be
        When he crosses the line at the goal;
      A rough, pine box, and a pauper’s grave
        And he has paid his toll.


THE HOBO’S OBSERVATIONS AND REFLECTIONS ON LIFE

The poets who have written best about the tramp are those who
have recorded their reflections on their own life and his. Robert
W. Service sees in “The Men That Don’t Fit In” a great group of
wanderers who move here and there in response to an imperious
wanderlust.

      There’s a race of men that don’t fit in,
        A race that can’t stay still;
      So they break the hearts of kith and kin,
        And roam the world at will.
      They range the field and they rove the flood,
        And they climb the mountain crest,
      Theirs is the curse of the gypsy blood,
        And they don’t know how to rest.

      If they just went straight they might go far;
        They are strong and brave and true;
      But they’re always tired of the things that are
        And they want the strange and new.
      They say, “Could I find my proper groove
        What a deep mark I would make!”
      So they chop and change, and each fresh move
        Is only a fresh mistake.

      And each forgets as he strips and runs
        With a brilliant, fitful pace,
      It’s the steady, quiet, plodding ones
        Who win the lifelong race.
      And each forgets that his youth has fled,
        Forgets that his prime is past,
      Till he stands one day with a hope that’s dead,
        In the glare of the truth at last.[62]

There are men in the tramp class who are always chasing rainbows,
always expecting to “strike it rich” sometime and somewhere. Bill
Quirke, for many years contributor to the _Hobo News_, gives
expression to this sentiment in the poem, “One Day; Some Way, I’ll
Make a Stake.” This poem was written a few months before Bill was
killed by an automobile in California. From the heart of it we
quote:

      For years I’ve drilled the rough pathway,
        And weathered many a wintry blast,
      I’ll make another stake some day
        For luck must turn my way at last.
      I’m far too old for working, too
      They say my work is almost through;
      My ore assesses never a flake
      But still I hope to make a stake.

In the _Hobo News_ of August, 1921, Charles Thornburn records his
reflections while he contemplates the empty, beaten faces of the
men of the “stem”:

      With ever restless tread, they come and go,
        Or lean intent against the grimy wall,
      These men whom fate has battered to and fro,
        In the grim game of life, from which they all
      Have found so much of that which is unkind,
        Still hoping on, that fortune yet may mend,
      With sullen stare, and features hard and lined,
        They wander off to nowhere, and the end.

      Their thoughts we may not fathom, in their eyes
        One seems to sense a vision, as though fate
      Had let one little glimpse of fairer skies
        Brighten their souls before she closed the gate.
      Yet have they hopes and dreams which bring them peace,
        Adding to life’s flat liquor just the blend
      Called courage, that their efforts may not cease
        To seek the gold, hid at the rainbow’s end.

“The Wanderer” is from the pen of Charles Ashleigh. It is said to
have been written in jail. It is a justification, not complete,
of the hobo principle of living for the day and by the day, of
enjoying the sweets of life, if they can be secured, and of
avoiding its problems.

      Is there no voice to speak for these, our kin;
        The strange, wild sorrows for the wanderer’s soul;
      The shining comradeship we sometimes win
        When on our wilful way to visioned goals?

      We are the ones to whom the forests speak,
        For whom the little by-streets run awry;
      Ships are our mistresses, and vaulted peaks
        Draw us unconquered to the tyrant sky.

      And what if we in sordid corners sink,
        Or perish in the crash of lawless fight;
      Our souls have had the wine of life to drink,
        We’ve had our blazing day. Let come the night.

The hobo characterizes the district where the employment agencies
are located as the “slave market.” Louis Melis, prominent in
Hobohemia as a soap-boxer, has written a poem entitled “The Slave
Market” from which the following verses have been taken:

THE SLAVE MARKET

      This is the city of lost dreams and defeated hopes;
      Always you are the mecca of the Jobless,
      The seekers after life and the sweet illusions of happiness.
      Within your walls there are the consuming
      Fires of pain, sorrow and eternal regrets.
      Roses never bloom here; silken petals
      Cannot be defiled.

      Streets in ragged attire, sang-froid in their violence;
      Years come and go; still your hideousness goes on
      And mute outcasts garnish
      Your every rendezvous.
      Blind pigs, reeking with a nauseous smell everywhere;
      The so-called “flops,” the lousy beds
      Where slaves of mill and mine and rail and shop
      Curl up and drop away unconscious,
      In fair pretense of sleep.
      Employment sharks entrapping men,
      Human vultures in benign disguise,
      Auctioning labor at a pittance per day.
      And it’s always “What will you give?”
      “What will you take?”
      The pocketing of fat commissions;
      Old men, young men, tramps, bums, hobos,
      Laborers seeking jobs or charity
      Each visioning happiness from afar.

      They swarm the city streets, these slaves,
      For all must live and strive,
      And always the elusive job sign
      Greets their contemplative glance.
      A job--food, clothing, shelter;
      Wage slaves selling their power;
      Oh, you Slave Market, I know you!

      From timbered lands, North, East, South and West
      From distant golden grain belts,
      From endless miles of rail,
      These workers float to the city.
      Timber beasts, harvesters, gandy dancers--
      Adventurers all. From every clime and zone,
      Each comes with hope of work or
      Else to blow his pile.


BATTLE SONGS OF THE HOBOS

There are many types of tramp songs but most conspicuous are the
songs of protest. The I.W.W. have done much to stimulate song
writing, mostly songs of the struggle between the masses and the
classes.

Most hobo songs are parodies on certain popular airs or on hymns.
One can easily determine when certain songs were written if he
knows when certain popular airs, to which they are fitted, were
the rage. The tunes most used by the tramp song writers are those
that are so well known that the song may be sung by any group of
transients. When the songs are parodies on hymns there is usually
a note of irony running through them. The following is called the
hobo’s “Harvest War Song.” It was written by Pat Brennan and is
sung to the tune of “Tipperary.”

      We are coming home, John Farmer; We are coming back to stay.
      For nigh on fifty years or more, we’ve gathered up your hay.
      We have slept out in your hayfields; we have heard your morning
            shout;
      We’ve heard you wondering where in hell’s them pesky go-abouts?

                              _Chorus_

      It’s a long way, now understand me; it’s a long way to town;
      It’s a long way across the prairies, and to hell with Farmer
            Brown.
      Here goes for better wages, and the hours must come down,
      For we’re out for a winter’s stake this summer, and we want no
            scabs around.

      You’ve paid the going wages, that’s what kept us on the bum,
      You say you’ve done your duty, you chin-whiskered son-of-a-gun.
      We have sent your kids to college, but still you rave and shout
      And call us tramps and hobos, and pesky go-abouts.

      But now the long wintry breezes are a-shaking our poor frames,
      And the long drawn days of hunger try to drive us bos insane,
      It is driving us to action; we are organized today;
      Us pesky tramps and hobos are coming back to stay.

Joe Hill, whose real name was Joseph Hilstrom, holds the place of
honor among the I.W.W.’s as a song writer. Before his death he
was one of the most enthusiastic of the I.W.W. organizers. His
execution in Utah in 1915 has not lessened his popularity among
the “Wobblies.” Most of his songs are parodies. “The Tramp” is
a parody on the old tune: “Tramp, Tramp, Tramp; the Boys Are
Marching.”

      If you will shut your trap,
      I will tell you ’bout a chap,
      That was broke and up aginst it too for fair;
      He was not the kind to shirk,
      He was looking hard for work,
      But he heard the same old story everywhere.

                           _Chorus_

      Tramp, tramp, tramp, keep on a-tramping,
      Nothing doing here for you;
      If I catch you ’round again;
      You will wear the ball and chain,
      Keep on tramping, that’s the best thing you can do.

      He walked up and down the street,
      ’Till the shoes fell off his feet;
      In a house he spied a lady cooking stew,
      And he said, “How do you do,
      May I chop some wood for you?”
      What the lady told him made him feel so blue.

      ’Cross the street a sign he read,
      “Work for Jesus,” so it said,
      And he said, “Here is my chance, I’ll surely try,”
      And he kneeled upon the floor,
      Till his knees got rather sore,
      But at eating time he heard the preacher say:

      Down the street he met a cop,
      And the copper made him stop,
      And he asked him, “When did you blow into town?”
      “Come with me to the judge.”
      But the judge he said, “Oh fudge!
      Bums that have no money needn’t come around.”

“The Preacher and the Slave,” also written by Joe Hill and sung to
the tune of “Sweet Bye and Bye,” is especially popular among the
malcontents because of its attack upon religion:

      Long haired preachers come out every night,
      Try to tell you what’s wrong and what’s right;
      But when asked how ’bout something to eat
      They will answer in voices so sweet:

                        _Chorus_

      You will eat bye and bye
      In that glorious land above the sky;
      Work and pray, live on hay,
      You’ll get pie in the sky when you die.

      And the starvation army, they play,
      And they sing and they clap and they pray,
      Till they get all your coin on the drum,
      Then they’ll tell you when you’re on the bum:

      Workingmen of all countries, unite,
      Side by side we for freedom will fight;
      When the world and its wealth we have gained
      To the grafters we’ll sing this refrain:

                        _Last Chorus_

      You will eat bye and bye
      When you’ve learned how to cook and to fry;
      Chop some wood, ’twill do you good,
      And you will eat in the sweet bye and bye.

The “Portland County Jail” is one of the few songs of the road that
does not wear out.

      I’m a stranger in your city,
        My name is Paddy Flynn;
      I got drunk the other evening,
        And the coppers run me in.
      I had no money to pay my fine,
        No friends to go my bail,
      So I got soaked for ninety days
        In the Portland County Jail.

                      _Chorus_

      Oh, such a lot of devils,
        The like I never saw;
      Robbers, thieves, and highwaymen,
        And breakers of the law.
      They sang a song the whole night long,
        And the curses fell like hail,
      I’ll bless the day they take me away
        From the Portland County Jail.

      The only friend that I had left,
        Was Happy Sailor Jack;
      He told me all the lies he knew,
        And all the safes he’s cracked.
      He cracked them in Seattle;
        He’d robbed the Western Mail;
      It would freeze the blood of an honest man,
        In the Portland County Jail.


HOBO VERSE IN A LIGHTER VEIN

The characteristic hobo is an optimist who sees the humorous side
of many an unpleasant or dangerous situation. The average seasoned
“bo” with full stomach and money in his pocket can enjoy to the
full the never-ending series of happenings on West Madison Street.
If there is nothing else, he can be amused at the other man’s
predicament. Many of these humorous experiences have found their
way into poetry.

The hobo is ironic even in the face of death. The following
poem, by an unknown writer, caricatures the contrast between the
sentiment and the reality of the hobo’s existence.

THE HOBO’S LAST LAMENT

      Beside a Western water-tank
        One cold November day,
      Inside an empty box-car,
        A dying hobo lay;
      His old pal stood beside him,
        With low and drooping head,
      Listening to the last words,
        As the dying hobo said:

      “I am going to a better land,
        Where everything is bright,
      Where beef-stews grow on bushes
        And you sleep out every night;
      And you do not have to work at all,
        And never change your socks,
      And streams of goodly whiskey
        Come trickling down the rocks.

      “Tell the bunch around Market street,
        That my face, no more, they’ll view;
      Tell them I’ve caught a fast freight,
        And that I’m going straight on through.
      Tell them not to weep for me,
        No tears in their eyes must lurk;
      For I’m going to a better land,
        Where they hate the word called work.

      “Hark! I hear her whistling,
        I must catch her on the fly;
      I would like one scoop of beer
        Once more before I die.”
      The hobo stopped, his head fell back,
        He’d sung his last refrain;
      His old pal stole his coat and hat
        And caught an East-bound train.[63]

A. W. Dragstedt, a prominent personality in Chicago’s Hobohemia,
is a man who goes and comes when he pleases. According to hobo
custom, he goes to the country each summer, but he usually spends
his leisure in town. He is an optimist. The following two verses
were written at a time when he was down but not downhearted.

      It takes a very little for me to be happy;
        The world has a smile for each day that goes by;
      My diet of coffee and doughnuts so snappy,
        Makes me very clever and mentally spry.

      My shoes are but uppers, pants full of patches;
        My stomach feels pleased when I fill it with soup;
      When sleepy and tired my slumber I snatches,
        In haystacks and hallways; sometimes in the coop.

“No Matter Where You Go” is a humorous presentation of the futility
of wandering. Where to go next when the hobo wants to move is
always a problem. Usually the “bo” gives an unfavorable report of
the district he has just left.

      Things are dull in San Francisco,
        “On the bum” in New Orleans;
      “Rawther punk” in cultured Boston,
        Famed for codfish, pork, and beans.
      “On the hog” in Kansas City;
        Out in Denver things are jarred;
      And they’re “beefing” in Chicago
        That the times are rather hard.

      Not much doing in St. Louis;
        It’s the same in Baltimore;
      Coin don’t rattle in Seattle
        As it did in days of yore.
      Jobs are scarce around Atlanta
        All through Texas it is still.
      And there’s very little stirring
        In the town of Louisville.

      There’s a howl from Cincinnati,
        New York City, Brooklyn too;
      In Milwaukee’s foamy limits
        There is little work to do.
      In the face of all such rumors,
        It seems not amiss to say
      That no matter where you’re going
        You had better stay away.


POETRY AND HOBO SOLIDARITY

In song and ballad the hobo expresses life as he feels and sees it.
Through poetry he creates a background of tradition and culture
which unifies and gives significance to all his experiences. His
ballads of the road and his battle songs of protest induce a
unanimity of sentiment and attitudes, the strongest form of group
solidarity in the hobo world.

Through the universal language of poetry the homeless man bridges
the chasm of isolation that separates him from his fellows. In
song and ballad he communicates his memories and his hopes to men
everywhere who, fascinated by his experiences, perceive in them
only a different expression of the human wishes of every person.


FOOTNOTES:

[58] H. Kemp, _The Cry of Youth_, p. 60. By special permission of
the publisher, Mitchell Kennerley.

[59] H. H. Knibbs, _Songs of the Outlands_, p. 50. By permission,
and special arrangement with, Houghton, Mifflin Company, the
authorized publishers.

[60] H. Kemp, _The Cry of Youth_, p. 78. By permission of the
publisher, Mitchell Kennerley.

[61] Arturo Giovannitti, _Arrows in the Gale_, p. 40.

[62] From _The Spell of the Yukon_, p. 15, by Robert W. Service,
author of _Ballads of a Cheechako, Rhymes of a Red Cross Man_, and
_Ballads of a Bohemian_, published by Barse & Hopkins, Newark, N.J.

[63] _Hobo News_, June, 1917.




CHAPTER XV

THE SOAP BOX AND THE OPEN FORUM


“Killing time” is a problem with the homeless man. The movie and
the burlesque are the only forms of commercialized amusements
within the range of his purse. Even these are only patronized
infrequently and by a few. For the vast majority there is no
pastime save the passing show of the crowded thoroughfare. Most of
them spend their leisure time shuffling along the street reading
the menu cards in the cheap restaurants, or in other forms of
“window shopping.” Sometimes they stray out of the “stem” into the
Loop. Perhaps they will go to the parks and lie on the grass, or to
the lake front where they may sit down and look out on the water.

The homeless man, as he meanders along the street, is looking
for something to break the monotony. He will stand on the curb
for hours, watching people pass. He notices every conspicuous
person and follows with interest, perhaps sometimes with envy, the
wavering movements of every passing drunk. If a policeman stops
anyone on the street, he also stops and listens in. If he notices
a man running into an alley his curiosity is aroused. Wherever he
sees a group gathered, he lingers. He will stop to listen if two
men are arguing. He will spend hours sitting on the curb talking
with a congenial companion.

During the summer, time hangs heavier on the hobo’s hands than in
winter. In cold weather, he is usually hard pressed to find food
and shelter. If the inclement weather overtakes him without funds
and jobless, and this is generally the case, he is absorbed with
the problem of “getting by.” He is driven to his wits’ end to find
a warm place to sleep at night and a comfortable place to loaf
during the day. It often takes a whole day’s scouting to find a
place to sleep at night and food enough to appease his gnawing and
growling stomach.

There are homeless men who have time on their hands even in winter.
They are those who have the rare ability to save enough in summer
to live in winter. The parks are no longer inviting. The soap-box
orators have either gone out of business or are forced indoors. The
hobo follows them and, where he can afford it, helps to support
them inside much as he did in the open. He spends more time in the
movies and burlesques and will sit for half a day at times watching
one show.

Listening to speeches is a popular pastime in Hobohemia. Nothing,
unless it is reading, occupies so much of the homeless man’s
leisure time.


STREET SPEAKING IN HOBOHEMIA

Hobohemia knows but two types of speakers--the soap-box orator
and the evangelist. The evangelist has been longer on the job.
Religious speakers are usually associated with established
organizations, or they represent mission groups of which there are
many varieties on the “stem.” There are evangelists who adhere to
no faith or creed. They are “free lances,” as most hobo speakers
are, only their message is a religious one. Few of these latter
take contributions, and seldom do they essay to make converts in
the sense of having a following. They are enthusiasts driven into
the streets with the irresistible urgency of their message. In
Hobohemia, where time hangs heavy on the hobo’s hands, there is an
audience for every message.

[Illustration: THE SOAP-BOX ORATOR--THE ECONOMIC ARGUMENT]

[Illustration: AN OUTDOOR MISSION MEETING--THE RELIGIOUS PLEA]

In a later chapter[64] the rôle of the evangelist in the life of
Hobohemia is considered; here we are interested in the soap-box
orators whose message is secular rather than other-worldly. The man
on the soap box is a reformer or a revolutionist, seeking to change
conditions. The missionary, on the other hand, is seeking less to
change conditions than to change mankind. This is the basis of the
conflict between their rival doctrines. The soap-boxers may contend
with each other concerning what is best for the down-and-out in the
here and now, but they are unanimous in their opposition to the
“sky pilots” and the “mission squawkers.” They maintain that it is
more important to enjoy life here than to live on the prospect of
joy hereafter. They have lost patience with the preacher because he
only promises “pie in the sky when you die,” and they want the pie
now.

The men and women who bring religion to the tramp in Hobohemia
have taken root in the life of the “stem.” Their street singing,
their preaching and praying, although little heeded by the hobo,
would be greatly missed if absent. But the missionary, transplanted
from another area of life, remains more or less of an alien.
The soap-box reformer is no less of an institution and he is,
moreover, native to the soil. He is closer to the actual life and
mundane interests of the homeless man. He stands on the curbstone
and publishes his opinions on the great questions of the day in
a positive and convincing manner, and his ideas are generally
couched in language that the man on the street can understand. The
hobo’s intellectual interests revolve about the problem of labor.
The soap-box orator is the hobo’s principal source of information
on this topic.

Soap-boxers are “free lances” most of the time. Either they are
out of harmony with all organizations or no organization has been
willing to adopt them. Those who make street speaking a profession
are a great deal like the ancient sophists. They are able to plead
one cause today and a different cause tomorrow. Their allegiance
is to be had by any group that can make the proper bid. With some
of them the inducement must be a financial one, while others are
interested only in ideas. If the idea attracts them they will take
up the new angle of the subject with the same enthusiasm that they
did the old. In this respect they are influenced by public opinion.
They love to harangue the crowds but they like to have the crowd on
their side.


EDUCATING THE PROLETARIAT

Soap-boxers usually take themselves seriously, though their
audiences do not always do so. They take themselves seriously in
spite of their frequent and often abrupt changes in positions on
the issues they discuss. They are usually made to explain these
changes, and these explanations, if not always logical, are usually
sincere. They invariably give their best thoughts on the subject
they discuss. Whatever they have gleaned from the available
sources they are striving to express in language that is live and
understandable to the man on the street. These efforts to clear
the issues, to spread propaganda or whatever it may be called, is
termed by the soap-boxers, “education.”

Not all the “stem” intellectuals who assume the burden of educating
the proletariat use the soap box. Many of them wield the pen. The
latter are, in the main, free-lance writers, and most of their
productions are tinctured with “red.” But they are generally able
to catch the ear of the down-and-out, whether he is a hobo or not.
The writings of these cloistered radicals, who are striving to
bring the chaotic proletariat to a unity of the faith, provide the
soap-box pulpiteer with facts and ideas which he interprets and
passes on to his curbstone audience in the shape of poems, songs,
articles, and essays. The writers provide, for them, an abundance
of material out of which the orators build their castles. Most of
these literary radicals are optimistic about the success of their
efforts to “get the worker’s mind right,” and thus prepare him for
the new order. The masses must be educated, but the soap-boxer,
whose burden it is, must himself be educated, and that is the job
of the writer who works behind the scenes.

Just how much education the Hobohemian proletariat gets from this
speaking and reading is not easily estimated. They learn something
about the class struggle, industrial organization, and politics.
Sometimes an observation on science or literature or art will
fall from a speaker’s lips, but most of these observations are
new only to the stranger in the class. The old-timer, however,
hears only old ideas restated; or, at best, new facts and figures
interpreted to support old ideas. It is like a game with a limited
number of pieces and a limited number of moves. Sometimes, to
be sure, a speaker endeavors to serve “science” to the “floating
fraternity.” Lectures on biology, psychology, sociology, or
economics may be heard any evening or holiday during the summer.
Most of these lectures go over the heads of the audience, and it
is questionable whether the speakers have sufficient background to
speak intelligently of the sciences they are attempting to expound.

This effort to educate the proletariat is, nevertheless, not
altogether without results. It gives men something to occupy their
minds. It gives them some understanding of their common interests;
creates a certain amount of solidarity and, perhaps, best of all,
“kills time.” Some speakers realize this and declare that the soap
box is primarily a kind of entertainment. One man makes it a point
to try to amuse his crowd as well as to “instruct” them. “You’ve
got to keep ’em interested. You have to amuse them and make ’em
laugh before you can get any ideas into their heads. Whenever
things get dry, I leave an opening for a drunk or someone to ask me
a question or crack a joke, and interest picks up again.”

    AN AFTERNOON SERIES OF SOAP-BOX ORATIONS

    60. During a Sunday in July, 1922, no less than twenty men
    spoke on the box at the corner of Jefferson and Madison
    streets; and as many topics were treated. In the afternoon
    the following speakers shared the time:

    1. The meeting was opened by a man who borrowed a box from
    a nearby fruit stand. He tried to get another man to speak
    first so that he would not have to hurt his voice gathering
    the crowd, but no one cared to start. He talked for twenty
    minutes about graft in the patent-medicine trade. He had
    a very catchy speech well tempered with humor and he
    gathered a big crowd. Evidently he had made a study of the
    patent-medicine business and his speech was an “exposure”
    of the game. He finished by selling some pamphlets dealing
    with the subject.

    2. The second speaker was an I.W.W. who talked for fifteen
    minutes on education. He was a good talker and held the
    crowd. He wound up by selling some I.W.W. literature
    and periodicals in which the thoughts of economists had
    been reduced from the difficult academic language to the
    understanding of the man on the street. He also passed out
    some literature, i.e., old issues of the _Solidarity_, and
    I.W.W. papers.

    3. Another I.W.W. talked twenty minutes on organization.
    He argued that the rich man organizes and for that reason
    is successful. He does not want the poor man at the bottom
    to organize because he fears that he will not be able to
    keep him at the bottom. He didn’t blame the rich man for
    organizing; he blamed the poor man for not organizing. He
    gave some literature away and sold some.

    4. A speech on superstition followed. It lasted twenty
    minutes and was aimed at a mission group that was holding
    a meeting across the street. The argument was that the
    Bible and the church were the most powerful instruments in
    the hands of rich men for keeping the poor man down. No
    collection was taken.

    5. A twenty-minute speech on the economic organization of
    industry was given by a man who took great pains to remind
    the crowd that he had spent seven years to learn all about
    it. He made a plea for the co-operation of labor to combat
    the organization of capital. No collection was taken.

    6. The next man argued that the unemployment problem is
    caused by two things; the overcrowding of population and
    the concentration of wealth into the hands of a few.
    Eighty-five per cent of the people had but 15 per cent of
    the wealth and 15 per cent of the people had 85 per cent of
    the wealth or more than they could possibly consume. This
    man usually takes up a collection on the ground that he is
    handicapped physically, but he did not on this occasion. He
    spoke for twenty minutes.

    7. No more speakers wanted the box so a drunk got on
    the stand and asked for the attention of the crowd. He
    furnished amusement for fifteen minutes. He was witty but
    easily led from subject to subject.

    No speaker talked long enough to bore the crowd. Each
    speaker, when he had finished, yielded the box to his
    successor. The crowd was a characteristic Hobohemian
    gathering, willing to stand so long as they could be
    interested. Like most such gatherings, it kept diminishing
    and increasing in size. Some would stand in front and
    listen for an hour while others would only stop a few
    minutes on the outer edge of the gathering. The reaction
    to the speakers was for the most part sympathetic.
    Occasionally a man on the sidelines would be seen to frown
    disapproval but it is the habit of those who are not
    interested to worm their way out of the group and go their
    way.

    While the sixth speaker of the above list was talking the
    crowd was attracted to the side by a discussion between
    one of the previous speakers and another man. The argument
    attracted so many listeners that the speaker was irritated
    and he called to one of the men engaged in the discussion,
    “Say B--, do you think that’s a square deal?” “Sorry C--, I
    didn’t know we were disturbing you.” The crowd on the side
    dispersed and gathered around the speaker on the box.


SOAP-BOX ETHICS AND TACTICS

Just as there are certain unwritten laws that are found in the
jungle camps, so there are unwritten laws that the soap-boxer
observes. Regardless of how much they differ in their schemes, they
are seldom personal in their opposition to one another. Soap-boxers
behave toward one another when not on the box much as lawyers do
when they are out of the courtroom, and even while on the box
they consider one another’s interests. For example, a speaker in
resigning the rostrum to his successor will frequently close with
some such statement as this: “I’d like to talk longer on this
subject but there are other speakers here and they have something
to say that you might like to hear.”

The practice of taking up personal collections is looked down upon
by most curbstone speakers. They feel that the soap box should
not be exploited. Collections are not always approved by the
audiences. Some men label their speeches “lectures” and “pass
the hat” on the ground that they have spent years in getting the
information. When they “perform the hat trick on the ‘simpoleons’
[simpletons]” they regard it as a compensation for the rôle
they play as educators. They chew fine the complex intellectual
food so that it may be taken up by the untrained and unlearned.
But unpopular as is the practice of collecting money, it is
not a barrier. The audience is exceedingly tolerant toward the
hat-passer and more so if he has a good “line” of talk, or if he is
handicapped.

Most men who talk to Hobohemian crowds make their living by selling
some kind of literature. Sometimes they sell pamphlets they have
written themselves, or they sell pamphlets or periodicals on a
commission. Getting money in this way is not unpopular among the
soap-boxers. It is a practice that is rather favored, for it is
the best way of getting the down-and-out to thinking, and if the
soap-box orators are united on any one thing it is this: that the
proletariat must be educated.

One of the favorite methods of distributing literature is to sell
it from the box. Enthusiastic persons in the crowd often buy a
paper and pay for several others to be distributed from the box.
Sometimes a man will take the stand and dispose of a hundred papers
or pamphlets in a few moments by persuading those who have money to
buy for those who have none.

A man who entertains the “slum proletariat” need not be without
status because he lives by street speaking. Most of them either
directly or indirectly earn their living in this way, though many
of them would not admit it. If a man can plead the cause of the
under dog to the satisfaction of the man on the street, if he has a
philosophy that pleases the crowd, and if he can present it in an
attractive manner, very few resent his passing the hat.

So with all their contentiousness the soap-box orators manage
to keep on speaking terms, and rather informally turn favors to
one another. Seldom do they “knock” one another, and seldom do
they crowd one another away from a corner or place one another
in embarrassing positions. In this they have gone farther toward
reaching a unity of purpose than the various mission groups who
compete on opposite corners for the same crowds.

It must not be thought that soap-boxing is a game that is without
its tricks. There are tricks for getting the crowds, tricks for
holding the crowds, and tricks for exploiting the crowds. Speakers
do not like to be the first one up on the box, nor do they like to
be the last one up when the crowd has become tired. If a man wants
to pass the hat, it is to his advantage to get the first chance at
the crowd. Men will do considerable jockeying to get on the box
just when they think it will be to their advantage.


FREE-LANCE VERSATILITY

Street speakers who stand before the same audiences one or more
times a week throughout the year tend to wear out. Some of them are
resourceful enough to find something new to say, but others find
it difficult to say old things in a new way, so they are likely to
fall into the habit of repeating themselves. Sometimes they try to
keep from growing stale by speaking in as many places as possible,
but since their audiences are limited to the Hobohemian population
they are always talking to a number who have heard them say the
same things before. After a speaker has made the rounds of all the
corners he is forced to get a new “line.”

Some men, however, persist in delivering old thread-bare messages
in their old, well-worn way. The speeches of some men are so well
known that the only interest is one of curiosity. The crowd listens
to see if anything was left out. The hobby of one free-lance
speaker is Henry George and the Single Tax. To the crowd he is the
“P and P” man, because he usually ends his speeches by selling
copies of _Progress and Poverty_ at “cost.” Everyone who has
been in town long enough to become acquainted with the principal
soap-boxers is familiar with this man’s “line,” but usually he
hears him again, partly, perhaps, because of his apparent sincerity.

Most soap-boxers, when they find themselves growing stale, are
able to change. B’s hobby for a long time has been a speech on
birth control, which he followed by selling some books on sex,
but he wore this subject out and recently changed to a speech
on superstition at the close of which he sells literature of an
anti-religious nature. Another speaker whose speech on patent
medicine and quack doctors finally lost its novelty is now talking
on birth control. Another has gone from trade unionism to the
Ku Klux Klan. An old-timer on Madison Street said of a certain
speaker: “That man used to be with the I.W.W.; then he went over to
How’s organization and now he’s free lancing.” “What is his line
now?” is a question that is commonly asked in regard to a soap-box
pulpiteer. They are expected to change.

In search of variety and for financial reasons, free lancers
of ability hire out as campaigners for the political parties.
“Where is John L. now?” asks one man. “Oh, he’s up in Wisconsin
campaigning for Senator LaFollette. Last month he was in Missouri
stumping for Senator Reed.” John carried credentials from both the
Democrats and Republicans and he can plead the cause of either.

The rôle of the soap-boxer, like that of the ancient sophist,
is that of instructor or entertainer. Men go in search of these
curbstone gatherings. On Sundays and holidays the crowd expects
them. Homeless men who have a job in the city during the week spend
the Sunday on the “stem” partly in order to hear the evangelists
and soap-boxers. It is their life. They like to see old friends on
the street, but they like especially to see familiar faces on the
box.


THE OPEN FORUM

The open forum is a place, usually indoors, where persons may
gather in formal meeting to discuss topics of interest. It is
usually a winter retreat for the soap-boxers and their followers.
In order to maintain a forum it is necessary to hire a hall and
govern themselves by some sort of organization. The “Hobo College”
is probably the most conspicuous open forum in Chicago. It is
but a branch of a chain of “colleges” that are maintained in the
larger cities of the country by the wealth of James Eads How, the
“millionaire hobo.” It has operated in Chicago nearly every winter
since 1907. Scarcely a soap-boxer in Chicago has not at some time
been associated with this institution. Many of them at some time
have either been officers or leading lights of the “college.” The
I.W.W. generally maintains a hall where a forum is conducted during
the winter, though it does not offer the variety of discussion and
subjects that the “college” does.

The forum is far from being a harmonious nestling ground for
hibernating soap-boxers. It is rather a veritable battle ground of
contending factions. These advocates of the “new society” who agree
and disagree so smilingly in the open often become caustic and
bitter in their attacks when forced to share the same hall. There
close association generates factions and cliques. There are always
the “ins” and the “outs.” New leaders are ever getting the chair,
and old policies are constantly replaced. The “Hobo College” for
the winter of 1922-23 had no less than six secretaries in as many
months and three complete “house cleanings.”

The order of procedure at the “Hobo College” is practically the
same as in most of the open forums. Meetings are held on the
afternoons or evenings at set dates, or there is a regular program
of a certain number of meetings a week. On Sunday two meetings are
often held. Meetings and programs are advertised in conspicuous
places. The meetings are so arranged that there is time at the end
of the principal speech for criticism, remarks, or questions from
the floor, after which the speaker has an opportunity to defend
himself. If distinguished visitors are present, they are usually
called upon. Meetings at the “Hobo College” are different from most
forums in that they usually terminate with a lunch.

The open forum has some advantages over the street meetings. The
group is more select and less transient. A subject for discussion
is viewed from various angles by different speakers who have
come at least partially prepared. On the soap box the problem of
disciplining the crowd is left entirely to the speaker. Once he
loses their interest they either harass him or desert him. In the
forum the audience is honor bound to remain until the speaker
has finished. In the open forum speakers may be invited who are
supposed to lend a certain distinction to the occasion. No one
can lend distinction to a soap box. Not the least advantage of
the forum over the soap box is that most of the audience can
participate in the meeting. The disadvantage is that it is not so
accessible and hence becomes exclusive.

The question is often asked, “How do soap-boxers get initiated into
the game of outdoor speaking?” For most of them the answer is, “In
the open forum.” In the open forum the beginners, the aspirants,
learn to take part in the discussions. They learn here to find
words to express themselves. In the forum they take sides and learn
to defend or oppose propositions, and they learn to order and
present their thoughts.

The forum has been described as a refuge for the hibernating
soap-boxer. It is more than a refuge; it is a study center. It is
to the free-lance speaker what a summer school is to the teacher;
an opportunity to relax and “polish up.”


THE SOAP BOX AND HOBO OPINION

Soap-boxers all say that they have enjoyed more liberty in Chicago
than in most cities. Chicago police have always taken a generous
and liberal attitude toward the curbstone forum. A man who has been
prominent in several free-speech fights says:

    The free-lance speaker is a great help to the police in
    this town. It’s easier to handle these crowds when they
    have someone to listen to. When a man gets restless, it
    gives him something to think about. If you don’t believe it
    just go into a town where the soap-boxer is suppressed and
    see how bitter the “bos” are.

The rôle of the soap-boxer is to make hobos think. He succeeds to a
greater extent in this than we realize. In his efforts to hold his
audience for half an hour he throws off a great many ideas. Much
of this ammunition is fired in the air, but not all of it. What
he actually does is to keep the minds of his hearers on objective
things. Otherwise their thoughts would turn inward, and for the
homeless man introspection is not a pleasant pastime.

It is probably true that the soap-box orator makes no permanent
impression on his audience. He does, to be sure, give voice to some
ill-defined sentiments in which all are agreed. But no practical
unanimity is ever achieved. This agitation starts no mass movement.
There has never been an effective permanent organization among
hobos. The very nature of the hobo mind resents every kind of
discipline that any form of organization would impose. He is by
circumstance, tradition, and temperament an individualist.

What of the soap-box reformer and revolutionist? Is he a menace
or merely a joke? The curbstone orator is not an agitator in the
ordinary sense of that word. He is merely a thinking hobo. In him
the homeless man becomes articulate. It is something to these
outcast men to hear in these curbstone forums the reverberations of
their own unuttered thoughts. It is something to the homeless man
merely to have a voice.


FOOTNOTES:

[64] Chapter xvii, “Missions and Welfare Organizations.”




CHAPTER XVI

SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HOBO ORGANIZATION


The hobo is an individualistic person. Not even the actors and
artists can boast a higher proportion of egocentrics. They are the
modern Ishmaels who refuse to fit into the routine of conventional
social life. Resenting every sort of social discipline, they have
“cut loose” from organized society.

For them there is only the open road which offers an existence
without discipline, without organization, without control. To the
restless and dissatisfied the life of a vagabondage is a challenge,
the most elementary way by which men seek to escape from reality.

Out of this unrest, efforts have arisen through which the hobo
has striven to materialize his dreams. Among the organizations
initiated or promoted by migrants are the Industrial Workers of the
World (I.W.W.), the International Brotherhood Welfare Association
(I.B.W.A.), the Migratory Workers’ Union (M.W.U.), the United
Brotherhood of American Laborers, and the Ramblers.


INDUSTRIAL WORKERS OF THE WORLD

The I.W.W. was formed in Chicago in July, 1905. Its headquarters
are here and its conventions have almost invariably been held here.
Chicago has been favored by the migratory radicals because it is a
transportation center, and because of its tolerant attitude toward
street speakers.

Theoretically, the I.W.W. is an organization of all industrial
workers, but it has been most enthusiastically supported, however,
by the hobos. It was conceived in the “stem,” and cradled and
nurtured by the floating workers. The hobo has always been
identified with it and, in the West, has played a militant rôle in
fighting its battles.

“The backwardness and unprogressiveness of trade unions as
organized in the American Federation of Labor, and the impotency of
trade union as organized in the American Federation of Labor, and
the impotency of political socialism to safeguard the ballot and
provide the organs necessary to carry on production in the future
society,” are the reasons, on paper at least, for the existence of
the I.W.W. It is an effort to organize the workers along industrial
lines, that is, to substitute, for trade unions, industrial unions
for all the workers in one industry. All the industrial unions,
metal-workers, construction-workers, seamen, agricultural-workers,
it seeks to combine into one mammoth organization called the “One
Big Union.”

The structure of the I.W.W. is simple. The unit is the industrial
local, which is composed of all the workers of an industry in
a locality. The various locals of an industry combine to form
an industrial department. The departments join together to form
the “One Big Union.” The organization is managed by a general
secretary who is virtually the executive head. The general
secretary-treasurer is assisted by an executive board elected by
the six unions having the largest membership. A seventh member is
elected by the other smaller unions.

Some of the “wobbly” spokesmen boast of 100,000 members, but that
is an overestimate. The membership is fluctuating and rises and
falls with the seasons, but perhaps it has reached 100,000 at
times. The membership is “on the road” most of the time, and
even the locals are migratory, so that definite figures are not
always at hand. The dues are fifty cents a month, so that many
loyal members are not always in good standing. The members in good
standing represent probably but a third or a fourth of the men who
designate themselves I.W.W.’s.[65]

When certain seasonal occupations begin, as the harvest fields,
the construction camps, and lumbering camps, the organizers set
to work enrolling members. Rumors circulate that no one will be
permitted to work on certain jobs unless he carries a red card;
that the “wobblies” will throw all non-members off freight trains;
that all the other workers are taking out membership cards; that
the employers of a certain district are going to cut the wages of
transient labor, or that in other localities the wages are good
because the I.W.W. will not permit anyone without a red card to
work.

The I.W.W. as an organization does not officially sanction methods
of intimidation, and will take action against any cases brought to
its attention. However, force and fear get members. Men who are
seeking work in a community on jobs over which the “wobblies” have
assumed control will take out cards to avoid conflict. Men will
join the organization to facilitate “riding the rods.” Memberships
for convenience only are short lived, seldom enduring over the
summer.


APPEAL OF THE I.W.W.

The I.W.W. does not depend wholly on fear to win its members. The
great appeal of the I.W.W., as of all other radical organizations,
is to the spirit of unrest that is a part of every hobo’s make-up.
The I.W.W. program offers a ray of hope to the man who is
down-and-out. Why the “wobbly” creed makes so stirring an appeal to
the hobo may be best understood by quoting the preamble of its
constitution:

    The working class and the employing class have nothing in
    common. There can be no peace as long as hunger and want
    are found among millions of the working people and the few,
    who make up the employing class, have all the good things
    of life.

    Between these two classes a struggle must go on until the
    workers of the world organize as a class, take possession
    of the earth and machinery of production, and abolish the
    wage system.

    We find that the centering of the management of industries
    into fewer and fewer hands makes the trade unions unable to
    cope with the ever growing power of the employing class.
    The trade unions foster a state of affairs which allows one
    set of workers to be pitted against another set of workers
    in the same industry, thereby helping to defeat one another
    in wage wars. Moreover the trade unions aid the employing
    class to mislead the workers into the belief that the
    working class have interests in common with their employers.

    These conditions can be changed and the interest of the
    working class upheld only by an organization formed in such
    a way that all its members in any one industry, or in all
    industries if necessary, cease work whenever a strike or
    lockout is on in any department thereof, thus making an
    injury to one an injury to all.

    Instead of the conservative motto, “A fair day’s wage for
    a fair day’s work,” we must inscribe on our banner the
    revolutionary watchword, “Abolition of the wage system.”

    It is the historic mission of the working class to do away
    with capitalism. The army of production must be organized,
    not only for the everyday struggle with capitalists, but
    also to carry on production when capitalism shall have been
    overthrown. By organizing industrially we are forming the
    structure of the new society within the shell of the old.

The hobo, dissatisfied with things as they are, has no time to
wait for the slow-moving processes of evolution. The preamble
appeals to him because it is anti-evolutionary; it preaches the
gospel of struggle and revolt. It is opposed to compromise and
reconciliation, and affirms that the fight must go on as long as
there is an employing class. No man, down-and-out, can hear this
doctrine without a thrill. The declaration that no quarter shall be
given to the capitalist is music to his ears.

Every member of the I.W.W. is expected to be an agitator. Wherever
he goes it is the mission of the “wobbly” to sow seeds of
discontent and to harass the employer. Certain members go from job
to job as “investigators.” They usually remain long enough to start
a disturbance among the regular employees, and to get discharged.
Agitators regard a long list of dismissals as evidence of their
success.

Official agitators make no effort at organizing. They merely “fan
the flames of discontent” and pass on. They are followed by the
pioneer organizer, an aggressive individual who starts the work
of forming a local. He is of the militant type and often gets no
farther than to arouse the men to the need of organization. Sooner
or later he also gets discharged, which is to him evidence that he
has “put it over.”

In the third stage of the offensive comes the real organizer. He
follows the militants and reaps what they have sown. He works
coolly and quietly in organizing the workers. He persuades and
argues, but not in the open. The employer only learns of his
presence when he has won over the men and is ready to make a
demand.


CHICAGO’S ATTITUDE TO I.W.W.

The I.W.W. is little understood by society in general. The public
believes that it is an organization of “tramps who won’t work,” and
that the initials stand for “I Won’t Work,” or “I Want Whiskey.” It
is true that many “wobblies” do want whiskey and many do not want
work, but the organization is neither pro-whiskey nor anti-work.
During the war the opposition to the organization was intense,
and Chicago was a center of arrests and prosecutions. At present,
however, the I.W.W. in Chicago enjoys a freedom for its activities
not found in many other cities.

There are two reasons for this tolerant attitude. In the first
place, West Madison Street, where the I.W.W. is most active, is
virtually isolated from other parts of the city. It is hemmed in
on the north and south by factories, and on the east by the river.
Then, too, Chicago is situated far from the battle grounds of the
organization. The “wobblies” wage a yearly war, but it is with the
farmers in the harvest belt, the lumber barons of the northwest,
the contractors, the mine operators; but all these are remote from
Chicago. If Chicago serves any part in this warfare it is the rôle
of a winter training camp where the tactics of the summer campaign
are worked out.


INTERNATIONAL BROTHERHOOD WELFARE ASSOCIATION

Next in importance to the I.W.W. is the hobo organization known as
the International Brotherhood Welfare Association, or the I.B.W.A.
Like the I.W.W. it started in 1905, but its membership at no
time has exceeded 5,000. The I.B.W.A., like the I.W.W., looks
forward to a new social order, a society in which there will be
no classes. But where the I.W.W. proposes to use force and direct
action or industrial organization to accomplish its purposes, the
I.B.W.A. would use education. The I.B.W.A. stresses welfare work,
brotherhood, and co-operation among the hobos. It aims to organize
and educate the unorganized and uneducated homeless and migratory
workers.

The I.B.W.A. is largely the creation of James Eads How, a member
of a wealthy St. Louis family. How, dissatisfied with the ease
and comfort of a rich man’s life, left home and drifted into the
group of hobos and tramps. Becoming interested in their problems,
he set to work to better their condition. He conceived the idea
of a great international hobo organization and converted several
hobo “soap-boxers” to his cause. The program of the I.B.W.A. is set
forth in Article III of the constitution:

    A. To bring together the unorganized workers.

    B. To co-operate with persons and organizations who desire
    to better social conditions.

    C. To utilize unused land and machinery in order to provide
    work for the unemployed.

    D. To furnish medical, legal and other aid to its members.

    E. To organize the unorganized and assist them in obtaining
    work at remunerative wages and transportation when required.

    F. To educate the public mind to the right of collective
    ownership in production and distribution.

    G. To bring about the scientific, industrial, intellectual,
    moral and spiritual development of the masses.

Another section of the constitution states that the organization
aims to “unite the migratory workers, the _Disemployed_ and
the unorganized workers of both sexes for mutual betterment and
development, with the final object of abolishing poverty and
introducing a classless society.”

[Illustration: JAMES EADS HOW]


“HOBO COLLEGE”

The most important of the auxiliary institutions of the I.B.W.A.
is the “Hobo College.” This unique institution is How’s idea. How,
as a strong believer in progress through education, desires to
bring to the hobo worker the rudiments of the natural and social
sciences. The “Hobo College” affords the migrant an opportunity
to discuss topics of practical and vital interest to him, and
to attend lectures by professors, preachers, and free-lance
intellectuals.

The “Hobo College” in Chicago[66] has received considerable
newspaper publicity. Like all the hobo colleges, the Chicago branch
only operates in winter. During the summer most of the “students”
are out of town at work on different migratory occupations.


HOLDING COMMITTEE

How’s income, which he inherited, is at the disposal of the hobos,
but it is “fed out” by degrees, according to the terms of the
will. As the money comes into How’s hands it is distributed and
apportioned by the Holding Committee, which is composed of a member
of the How family, a member of the “Hobo College,” a member of the
Junior League (a non-functioning organization for boy tramps), and
the acting secretary and all previous secretaries of the I.B.W.A.
Most of this money goes to the support of the various organizations
of the I.B.W.A., including the _Hobo News_.

The Holding Committee also may contribute at times to the purchase
of halls and other property, to transport delegates to and from
conventions, or rather to pay their fare back after they have
“beaten their way” to the meeting, and to promote propaganda. A
plan is now on foot to maintain a lobby at Washington to support
legislation in behalf of the hobo. One proposal is a federal labor
exchange. The Holding Committee may and often does contribute to
other causes.


CO-OPERATIVE “FLOPS”

One of How’s ambitions is to establish hobo stopping places in all
the principal cities of the country. Already he has opened “Hotels
de Bum” in more than twenty cities. Some of them are owned by the
I.B.W.A., but most of them only rented for the winter months. The
“hotel” in Cincinnati is typical. It is a two-story frame building,
located in the Hobohemian section of the city. The second floor,
designed for “flopping,” is equipped with about forty cots. The
first floor is divided into a loafing- or reading-room and a
kitchen. In the kitchen there are a gas range and enough pots and
kettles to “boil up” clothes or cook a “mulligan.” At the rear of
the building is a small wood yard where ties and other wood are
cut for the heater. The management of these hotels is left to the
men who select a house committee from their number. The committee
looks after the building and insists that the men keep the place
clean. A small tax is imposed now and then to meet current expenses
and to pay one man a small fee for looking after the accounts. The
ordinary “mission stiff” cannot survive long in an I.B.W.A. hotel.
He usually leaves when asked to contribute his share toward the
upkeep. But a man without money is welcome, if he does his part.
Some of these hotels pay their way. Most of them, however, never
meet expenses, but the deficit generally is made good by How.


RÔLE PLAYED BY HOW

Whatever the future of the I.B.W.A., at present it is almost a
one-man organization. Regardless of the ideals How entertains about
democracy, he really controls the I.B.W.A. He does all this because
he holds the purse. The I.B.W.A., with all its auxiliaries, are
dependent in the last analysis upon the funds of Dr. How. None of
these institutions is self-supporting. The membership fees are not
sufficient in many cases to cover the running expenses. The Chicago
branch of the “Hobo College,” for instance, has been one of the
most active in the country, but it has never paid its way. How
does not take advantage of the fact that his money maintains the
institution. He does not have as much to say about the disposition
of funds as certain other members of the Holding Committee, but his
right to impose his will upon the organization is ever present with
the leaders.

How has been persuaded at times to withhold funds from certain
locals thought to be radical. He fears the I.W.W. who sometimes
crowd into a local group and outvote the non-I.W.W. In such cases,
How’s money is used to spread their propaganda. The initiation fee
of the I.B.W.A. is so small (ten cents and ten cents a month dues)
that a large number of men may be enrolled for a few dollars. When
the I.W.W. recently lost one of their halls in Chicago, they tried
to work their way into the I.B.W.A., but the plot was found out and
the books for the time being were closed. When How cuts off the
rent allowance to a local it soon closes its doors.

The fact that the I.B.W.A. is virtually How’s organization has
had interesting effects on the behavior of the members. Certain
officials compete with one another to get into his good graces.
Others take a stand in bitter opposition to him. There is always
jealousy between those “who sit on the right hand and those who
sit on the left hand.” Individuals in the various locals with a
grievance write directly to How. Complaints go to him more often
than to general headquarters.


MIGRATORY WORKERS’ UNION

The Migratory Workers’ Union, or the M.W.U., composed wholly of
hobos, was organized within the I.B.W.A. in 1918. Some of the
leaders of the I.B.W.A. felt that the older organization was
neglecting the interests of the migratory worker. They charged that
it was too much concerned with welfare work and too little with the
organization of the workers. They converted How to the idea of a
migratory workers’ union and he contributed to its establishment.

The originators of the M.W.U. had other ends in mind. They wanted
to organize a powerful group of workers within the I.B.W.A. that
would be able to dominate the conventions and bring pressure
to bear on How. They hoped that the M.W.U. would grow to such
proportions that How would fear it, and that he would not dare to
use it as a “plaything.” Secondly, the M.W.U. was a scheme to get
funds independently of the How allowance. Thirdly, the originators
planned to organize the workers along industrial lines more
effectively than had the I.W.W., which at the time was unpopular
on account of its opposition to the war. Fourthly, the M.W.U.,
starting with a “clean slate” and a less radical program than the
I.W.W., might attract the more moderate of its members who had lost
faith in the revolutionary movement. The thought of winning over
the lukewarm members of the I.W.W. was probably the argument that
appealed to How.

The “Aims and Objects” of the organization contain a decidedly less
radical program than the preamble to the I.W.W. constitution.

    1. A national agitation against the unconstitutional laws
    as they affect the migratory worker.

    2. Federal inspection of all construction camps by the
    United States Public Health Service.

    3. To work in favor of the abolition of the chain-gang
    system and all prison contract labor.

    4. Free transportation to and from the jobs for all
    migratory workers.

    5. The abolition of privately owned employment agencies.

    6. A shorter work day.

The M.W.U. has not been active in Chicago, though one of its
officers has always been a Chicago man. It has been most active in
Ohio and Indiana but is even dying there.


UNITED BROTHERHOOD OF AMERICAN LABORERS

Michael C. Walsh is the general secretary-treasurer and the chief
promoter of the United Brotherhood of American Laborers. Walsh, an
old organizer for the I.W.W., is not in harmony with the “wobblies”
at present. Although at one time the president of the “Hobo
College,” he has also withdrawn from that institution.

The aim of the Brotherhood is to unite all migratory and even
non-migratory workers with the slogan, “What is the concern of one
is the concern of all.” Its program promises reading-rooms, picture
shows, lectures, but the chief attraction is an accident and life
insurance policy which every member takes out.

Members of the M.W.U. and the I.B.W.A. accuse Walsh of drawing up
an impractical program for economic and legislative reform, and
charge that the “aims” of the Brotherhood were borrowed from their
organizations and only slightly modified.


BENEVOLENT AND PROTECTIVE ORDER OF RAMBLERS

The Benevolent and Protective Order of Ramblers is supposed to
be a semi-secret organization of the floating fraternity, but
its membership is composed of a small number of Chicago’s “home
guards.” It was organized by John X. Kelly and has no benefits nor
program except that the members agree to help one another when in
trouble. It holds meetings (for members only) now and then, but
it does not aim to deal with any economic or social problems. The
“Ramblers” endeavors to add a human touch to the migrant’s life. It
is, in short, a hobo good-fellowship club that meets where and when
it is convenient to drink the “milk o’ human kindness” and to sing
“Hail! Hail! You Ought to Be a Rambler.”


HOBO CO-OPERATIVE MOVEMENTS

Dissatisfied with things as they are, the hobo experiments now
and again with co-operative projects. Most of these are attempts
to do on a small scale what the dreamers hope to accomplish in
the future on a larger, a national, or an international scale.
That co-operative organizations failed is no discredit to the
leaders nor any conclusive proof against the value of co-operative
movements as a motive in economic life. The failure is to be
explained at least in part by the egocentricity and individualism
or the irresponsibility of the migratory workers.

Of the following five interesting cases of co-operative projects
among migratory workers, only one took place in Chicago. The story
of all of these attempts has, however, been written by the prime
mover of them, John X. Kelly. Sooner or later all hobo co-operative
experiments end the same way. They fail because of suspicion and
lack of harmony.

    61. My first attempt to organize a co-operative scheme was
    in 1909 in Redlands, California. I knew a group of men;
    some of them radical and all of them idealists. It occurred
    to me that they were the very types to make a communistic
    plan work. I knew of a tract of land, one hundred and sixty
    acres, open for settlement. Fourteen dollars to file a
    claim and a little additional expense and labor would have
    put the place in working condition.

    I presented my plan to these men and ten of them approved
    the idea. They had all been soap-boxers and agitators and
    I felt that here at last is a group of men who can make a
    co-operative organization a success. Our scheme was very
    simple, everyone was to bear his share of the burden and
    to receive his share of the profits. No matter what a man
    did as long as it was part of the work of running the farm
    would be considered as important as any other part. The
    government of the place would be absolutely democratic.
    A manager would be elected from the number and he would
    remain manager for a certain term or as long as he gave
    satisfaction. The land was to be divided up as follows:
    each man was to have a five acre plot as his individual
    property and the other hundred and ten acres of ground was
    to be worked co-operatively.

    We had scarcely got organized when dissensions arose. Some
    were satisfied with the manager but others feared him
    and mistrusted him. Some declared that it was impossible
    to determine how much of one kind of work was equal to
    another kind of work. Some were not satisfied because they
    felt that they were going to be imposed on and they would
    not join an organization in which there was no assurance
    that they would get a square deal. The result of this
    disputation was the breakup of the movement. Each man went
    his way.

       *       *       *       *       *

    My second endeavor to promote a hobo co-operative
    movement was in 1917 in St. Louis. It was in the winter
    time and there were many idle men in town. I conceived
    what I thought was the most modern and up to date plan
    ever brought into being to promote the interests of the
    down-and-outs. Knowing that the unemployed were being
    exploited by semi-religious and charitable organizations
    who gave little in return for much work, I set about to
    solve the problem in another way. Dr. James Eads How of St.
    Louis, founder of the International Brotherhood Welfare
    Association, contributed $200 to be used as follows: $100
    to be spent for a horse and wagon, $50 for a gasoline
    engine and a saw, while the rest was to be used to buy
    food until funds could be had for the sale of wood. It was
    a reserve fund only to be used in case of emergency. A
    saloon-keeper gave us the use of a yard in East St. Louis
    free of charge. There was an old store in connection with
    the yard that could also be used. The place was in the
    heart of East St. Louis and accessible to any part of the
    city. The American Car Repairing Company gave us all the
    wood we cared to haul away. Eleven policemen sent in orders
    for wood. They were willing to pay three dollars a load for
    this wood sawed and split into kindling.

    The conditions under which the men entered the program
    were similar to the first venture. They were all to have
    an equal share in the profits. The manager, the man who
    operated the saw; all who worked in and around the wood
    yard, after expenses were deducted, were to share alike.
    Everything was to be democratic, no one was to be an
    exploiter, and nobody was to be exploited. Everyone agreed
    and after I had remained with the project a day or so
    until it got under way, I left them to work out their own
    problems.

    Within a week a committee of three came to me in St. Louis
    with a story of confusion and a cry of being buncoed by the
    manager. They said that some of the members would not work.
    I sent them back to straighten out matters but conditions
    seemed to get worse in so far as finances were concerned,
    and within six weeks the co-operative wood yard disbanded.

       *       *       *       *       *

    A short time later I went over to East St. Louis and took
    the horse and wagon and other property of the wood yard to
    St. Louis where I had interested a number of the St. Louis
    Group of the I.B.W.A. to take a chance with the communistic
    scheme. Instead of selling the wood by the load this time
    they were going to sell small bundles of kindling coated
    with pitch. The men did not care this time to use the buzz
    saw and engine so I bought six hand saws and six hatchets.
    I also bought a half barrel of pitch into which the
    kindling could be dipped. I succeeded in raising $32.00 as
    a jungle fund so that the boys could “get by” while working
    to get a start.

    A start was all that was made as the entire group got
    intoxicated with “joy” with some of the jungle fund. Next
    morning the secretary, who was handling the fund returned
    half of it with the statement that the co-operative wood
    yard was a fizzle. The man who had been elected manager
    died while on this drunk.

    Here was a group of men that I was satisfied would make a
    success of a communistic scheme if one could be put over,
    but they failed miserably. Some men in both these wood yard
    experiences blamed me because the schemes did not succeed.

       *       *       *       *       *

    The fourth venture was in Chicago in 1920. I tried to put
    over a co-operative lodging house scheme in the “Slave
    Market District” where thousands of migratory workers
    congregate because of the cheap living conditions. Instead
    of the Scissors Bill class this group was made up of
    radicals who at some time in their unhappy lives had taken
    part in some co-operative experiment. Again I went to Dr.
    How with my new idea and at my suggestion he agreed to pay
    three months rent in advance to help the movement along by
    retaining one of the rooms as an office for the I.B.W.A.
    Five rooms were rented for twenty-five dollars and the
    I.B.W.A. took one of them at half the price or twelve and
    a half dollars a month. Later we rented four additional
    rooms at fifteen dollars making the total rent for nine
    rooms forty dollars of which nearly a third was paid by the
    I.B.W.A.

    As national secretary of the I.B.W.A. I was supposed to
    have my office there, but I could do most of my work
    at home so I turned the room rented for office over to
    the club for a sitting room. The I.B.W.A. contributed
    fifty-eight dollars to buy furniture. Some other furniture
    was also bought by money contributed by the men. The place
    was to be operated on a fifty-fifty basis. All the profits
    and the expenses were to be equally shared. Everyone agreed
    and the organization was effected.

    Now the funny part comes. Quarrels soon arose over trifles,
    and the members began calling each other grafters, and
    parasites. I was even called a parasite though the only
    part I played was to start the project and to encourage
    it to operate smoothly. Before six months had elapsed the
    co-operative flat was a thing of the past. The men sneaked
    away all of the furniture, that of the I.B.W.A. as well as
    some that belonged to the members of the group. They hauled
    it all away to furnish two small flats. They also left an
    eighteen-dollar gas bill which the amateur promoter had to
    pay.

       *       *       *       *       *

    The fifth and last experiment is not a case of co-operation
    but it illustrates what might be expected from the hobo.

    During the winter of 1916 a St. Louis lady, Dr. Innis,
    conducted a free dispensary for the “bos” who could not get
    hospital treatment. Dr. How paid the bill for conducting
    the place. Dr. Innis took a great interest in the migratory
    worker and co-operated with us in working out a scheme by
    which the hobo could save some money during the summer to
    hold him over the winter months. She agreed to receive and
    hold in trust all the money that any man would send to
    her and in the fall when he came to town turn it over to
    him. We got out a lot of letters and cards by which this
    correspondence banking could be carried on and about a
    hundred and fifty men agreed that it was a good scheme and
    that they would take advantage of it.

    The result was amusing. Out of all the men who approved the
    plan only one sent in any money. That one man sent in one
    dollar. Shortly after Dr. Innis got a letter from this man.
    He said he was “broke” and would like to have his dollar
    back.

       *       *       *       *       *

    My conclusion is that it is impossible to accomplish
    anything along co-operative lines and in a democratic
    manner. I know the hobo worker fairly well and I tried
    patiently to put over schemes that they have, for the most
    part, favored, and I worked with fair representatives
    of the group, but they will not co-operate. They are
    suspicious and selfish when it comes to the final test of
    their pet ideas. Co-operative schemes may work but I don’t
    think they will be a success along democratic lines.


FAILURE OF HOBO ORGANIZATIONS

Hobo organizations have never been a success in this country. It
is proverbial that conventions of the I.W.W. and the I.B.W.A. have
always been veritable battle grounds of contending interests. The
I.B.W.A. has had four conventions during the winter of 1921-22
and the summer of 1922 and they all failed to accomplish anything
because of jealousies and bitter feelings. The convention in
Cincinnati on May Day, 1922, continued in session for three days
and did not get any farther than to argue about the power of the
convention to act in the name of the I.B.W.A. One whole session was
spent in a quarrel about the election of a chairman.

Between the M.W.U. and the I.B.W.A. there is considerable
antipathy, yet the M.W.U. cannot stand alone and will not
co-operate with the parent organization. The I.W.W. is against
both, but even in the I.W.W. there is a perpetual clash between
the migratory workers and the “home guards.” Active and zealous
organizers usually find room for complaint against the office force.

The hobo, like other egocentric types, is suspicious. The I.W.W.
at its inception spent days arguing whether the name of its chief
officer should be that of president. Some felt that to model
the organization after others would be a step in imitation that
might lead to other forms of imitation. Some reasoned that most
presidents of organizations they had known were “parasites” and
their head officer might become one also if given the name. The
hobo’s suspicious attitude toward all organizations and persons in
power is not altogether without ground. As a group the migratory
workers usually get the “short end” of every bargain they drive
with organized society. Every contractor they work for “does” them
for something. If he does not charge them for tools they lost or
destroyed he may charge them for rent on a pair of boots or a
blanket they may have used. They may buy a job from some private
agency and later lose the job because the agency and the contractor
have an understanding to sell as many jobs as possible. The hobo
gets the opinion that most officers in most organizations are
playing the game for what they can get out of it and he concludes
that it is the natural thing to do.

The mobility and instability of the hobo or tramp, which is both
cause and consequence of his migratory existence, unfits him for
organized group life. Moreover, he is propertyless, and therefore
the incentive of fixed ownership and fixed residence to remain
faithful to any institution is gone. While the man of property
secures himself best by associating with his neighbor and remaining
in one locality, the hobo safeguards himself by moving away from
every difficulty. Then, too, the hobo is without wife and child.
His womanless existence increases his mobility and his instability.

In pointing out the repeated and seemingly inevitable failures
of hobo organizations, the fact must not be lost sight of that
they are absolutely necessary to his social existence. Only in
these social and political organizations can the migratory worker
regain his lost status. Only in association with his fellows can
he again hope and dream of an ideal world of co-operation. These
organizations will either survive repeated failures or take new
forms, because they satisfy this fundamental need of the social
outcast for status. Then, too, in these groups, his rebellious
attitudes against society are sublimated into a radical idealism.
Were these organizations destroyed, the anti-social grudge of the
individual would undoubtedly be reflected in criminality.


FOOTNOTES:

[65] According to the financial statement for the I.W.W. for May
and June of 1922, there were in good standing 18,234 members. This,
it must be remembered, was just before the summer membership drive,
which is said to have recruited over 18,000 additional members.

[66] The Chicago branch of the “Hobo College” is located at
present (1922-23) at 913 West Washington Boulevard. It has taken
the name temporarily of “Brotherhood College,” because the
owners of the property would not rent the hall so long as the
word “hobo” was connected with the movement. The change was made
rather reluctantly. The second and third floors are in use; the
second floor for reading-room and kitchen, the third floor is a
lecture-hall.




CHAPTER XVII

MISSIONS AND WELFARE ORGANIZATIONS


In the winter of 1921-22 there were twenty-five missions in the
Hobohemian areas of the city. This number tends to expand and to
contract with the increase or the decrease in number of men out of
work. The number of missions in the West Madison Street section
is larger than the number in the South State Street and North
Clark Street regions combined. The influence of the Salvation
Army, which has outgrown the status of a mission, upon similar
organizations is profound. The names of many of the missions
suggest their origin in imitation of this pioneer body in religious
work for the “down-and-outs”: Christian Army, Samaritan Army, Saved
Army, Volunteer Rescue Army. The names of other missions are as
interesting: Bible Rescue Mission, Cathedral Shelter, Helping Hand
Mission, Pacific Garden Mission, Sunshine Gospel Mission.

The uniforms of the “armies” that make up the working force of
certain of the missions are often so nearly alike that it is
difficult to tell them apart. A short time ago the Salvation Army
brought suit against the Saved Army to prevent it from using the
poke bonnets, the blue uniform, the song “The War Cry” on the
ground that they were so similar to those of the Salvation Army
that the public was confused. It is claimed by representatives
of the Salvation Army that individuals contribute to these other
missions and “armies” under the impression that the contribution is
for the Salvation Army.


TYPES OF MISSIONS[67]

Aside from the religious work of the Salvation Army and the
Volunteers of America, three types of missions are to be found in
Hobohemia: (1) the permanently established local mission, (2) the
migratory national mission, and (3) the “wild cat” local mission.

1) The permanently established local mission either owns its
building or holds it on a long lease. These missions are sponsored
by some church or by a board of directors composed of business
men of more or less local prominence. Not infrequently these
contributors are successful converts.

These local missions dispense charity in the form of food,
clothing, and beds for homeless men.[68] They differ, however, in
their methods of relief as well as in their policies of relief. One
mission may care for every man who asks for aid without question as
to his worthiness, another feels that better service can be done
by helping only those who are willing to work, or those who are
incapacitated for manual labor. Only the verbose intoxicant is ever
ejected from the mission--all others may come and go as they wish.

In the permanently established mission is found the better type
of mission worker who is compensated by a definite salary rather
than paid on a commission basis. The permanent workers consist
of a superintendent and a secretary assisted by converts who
have made good, usually old men who use the mission as a refuge.
Still further help comes from students of the various religious
institutions in the city and from the friends of the mission.

2) The national migratory missions may have headquarters in Chicago
or some other metropolitan center with branches or sub-missions in
nearby towns and cities. These organizations are generally financed
by solicitations. Men and women are employed to canvass places
of business; to “drum” on the streets and to make house-to-house
calls. This practice of drumming on the streets is known as
“ballyhooing.” These solicitors receive, in most cases, as much
as 50 per cent of the amount they collect, which greatly lessens
the sum to be used for the homeless men after the rent for the
building, the salaries of the men in charge, and other expenses
have been deducted from the remaining 50 per cent.

The shifting of these missions is proverbial. If they are not
moving from city to city they are moving from one street to
another, or from one location to another on the same street. The
workers are as transient as the institutions themselves: migrating
back and forth between cities, and affiliating themselves first
with one mission and then with another. Often they are rural folk
who, through urban mission work, find expression for the wishes
of adventure and recognition. The fascination of the city has an
attraction for the migratory mission worker as for the migratory
laborer. They prefer this life, even under adverse conditions, to
any other field of service. Others are veterans, who have been in
mission work for years with four or five different organizations
in as many cities.

3) The “wild cat” local mission, more or less ephemeral in nature,
springs up during some crisis as an unemployment situation. Using
the crisis as an excuse for soliciting funds to aid the unemployed,
they operate for awhile, and when conditions have been ameliorated,
they go out of existence. The workers, enthralled by a few months
in the service, then affiliate with another mission.


MAKING CONVERTS

The following narrative by an observer in the Bible Rescue Mission
one Sunday evening early in April, 1922, describes the technique of
conversion.

    62. More than a hundred men were in the audience. The night
    was cold and they were glad to be inside. Then, too, there
    were rolls and coffee to be served after the meeting. Near
    the close of the service the evangelist stept down from
    the stand and asked if anyone in the audience wished to be
    prayed for. Surely out of an audience of so many men, all
    sinners, someone was concerned about his soul. All a man
    would have to do was to raise his hand. That was easy; just
    believe with all your heart, raise your hand for prayer. It
    was worth taking a chance on anyway. Three hands went up.

    “That’s fine! Three men have asked to be remembered before
    the Lord. Is there anyone else? Just one more, let’s make
    it four. Won’t someone else raise his hand. Yes, there’s
    another hand. God bless you, brother. Now, will the four
    men who raised their hands please stand?”

    This was more than they had bargained for, but they stood.
    All eyes were on the four, all homeless men with the
    characteristic beaten look. They were self-conscious and
    uncomfortable. One of the men, somewhat older than the
    others, seemed to be stirred by emotion.

    “Now,” continued the evangelist, “will the four brothers
    who just stood up kindly come forward and kneel with us
    in prayer?” There was a moment of hesitation. Finally,
    the old man led the way. One of the others followed in a
    halting fashion. A worker came down from the stand and
    escorted to the front the younger of the remaining two. The
    fourth man sat down. Another worker sat down beside him and
    pleaded with him for some time. The man seemed to resent
    it at first, but at length he yielded and was led into the
    circle. He had a sheepish look as he slumped to his knees
    between two of the other converts.

    Several of the workers began to labor with members of the
    audience while the little circle kneeled on the floor and
    prayed. No other converts were made so the meeting came
    to an end with handshakes and congratulations for the new
    converts. Then the lunch was passed and the tension relaxed.

    Once outside I asked a man who had been inside what he
    thought of the meeting. He laughed, “Oh, it’s just like all
    of them. I wanted to laugh out loud when I saw that old
    duck get saved. He gets saved every winter. This winter he
    got saved twice. He always manages to get saved in missions
    where there is something to eat.”

Women play a leading rôle in mission work. The homeless man, who
remembers his home and mother, listens with respect to the prayers
and appeals of the women workers, and is stirred by the singing of
young girls. A religious plea by a woman of strong personality will
sometimes overwhelm a despondent and homesick man.

    63. Probably the most interesting event of our
    investigation was a Salvation Army revival meeting, held in
    a little auditorium behind the smoking room. Each Sunday
    night at about 8:00, these services are held. Eight or
    nine girls, one the leader, and one the pianist, make up
    the cast and chorus. When they are ready the invitation is
    extended to those in the smoking room and anywhere from six
    to thirty are likely to go into the “church.”

    The leader is a very versatile lady. She can utter a
    fervent prayer, sing louder than all the rest of the girls
    together, play a tambourine at the same time, and make a
    stirring appeal to the audience that they “come forward to
    Jesus and be saved.” The girls join in the chorus, clapping
    as they sing. They have all been saved, and testify as to
    the truth of the leader’s words. “Isn’t that true, girls?”
    and they all nod their heads in perfect accord.

    The old songs are sung, songs with simple tune and words
    as “He’s the Lily of the Valley.” Anyone hearing these
    songs once can join in, and all are asked to do so, but
    few respond. Yet it is inspiring to see some forlorn
    looking bum concentrate on the little book and sing forth
    earnestly, as some of them do. Very few, however, wish to
    be saved. They are willing to attend the services, and
    maybe to sing, but they will not volunteer to join the army
    of God, and when personal solicitation is undertaken, few
    remain in the room.

During warm weather the missions hold street meetings. Headed by
the mission band, the company marches outside to get the crowd.
A few songs are sung, several testimonials are given, and the
curbstone audience is invited to the hall.

Few mission workers are able to gather and hold a crowd on the
street. It is more difficult to preach on account of the noise of
passing street cars and automobiles. The crowd outside is less
stable and not so considerate as the indoor audience. Often the
meetings are disturbed by drunken men or by competing mission
groups on the same street. A mission band may not be able to
gather any crowd, even though hundreds of men are passing or
loafing on the streets. Sometimes their audiences will be stolen by
soap-boxers who start near by with the “economic arguments.”


PERMANENT, PERIODIC, AND TEMPORARY CONVERTS

Every mission has its permanent, periodic, and temporary converts;
its “alumni.” Some of these linger about the mission doing
odd jobs, others go to work or into business, only returning
occasionally to bear testimony. Many of these have prospered
both spiritually and materially, and assist the mission in its
work. Certain missions celebrate the “spiritual birthdays” of
these converts. A bouquet of flowers is placed on the pulpit
and a special program is arranged in honor of the occasion. The
anniversary of the conversion of a permanent convert is a time of
rejoicing. The “twice-born man” bears his testimony to the saving
power of the gospel that snatches “a brand from the burning,” and
asks the prayers of the saints that he may continue “faithful until
the end.” Each of the “saved” who are present wears a flower in the
lapel of his coat and takes advantage of the occasion to add his
testimony.

The following typical cases of converts were secured through
hearing the testimony of men in the missions and by later
interviews with each of the converts. The information given was
also verified by mission workers who knew the men.

    64. H. M., in his own words, was once “one of the worst
    jail birds and boozers” in this part of the country. For
    years, he declares, he was never sober. His arrival home
    usually meant the beating of his wife. At the end of every
    month he was in debt to the saloon keeper. He gravitated
    from one house to another unable to pay his rent, until
    his family was living in an old dilapidated shack. His
    religious transformation changed the whole situation. He is
    now in business for himself. He is considered one of the
    most competent and reliable in his field. He and his wife
    work at the mission and are among its largest financial
    contributors.

    65. About twenty years ago T. S., a typical “down-and-out,”
    wandered into a Chicago mission. He had deserted his family
    in an eastern state and started on the bum. Exposure and
    “booze” had almost completely enervated him. He was dirty,
    unshaved, and in rags. His visit to the mission led to his
    conversion and subsequently to reconciliation with his wife
    and three children. He is now superintendent of a business
    concern in the city.

    66. P. W., a man of foreign birth and a graduate from one
    of the leading universities of his native country, became
    addicted to drink, deserted his wife, and leaving her in
    dire need came to this country. He became so low a bum that
    he was taking his food from garbage cans in the alleys of
    Chicago, spending every cent he could get for “booze.” He
    was so debilitated from alcohol, exposure, and lack of
    nourishment when he came to the mission that he was hardly
    able to walk. He was converted and restored to health. His
    wife later joined him. He became nationally known as a
    worker in missions.

    67. Some years ago a young lad left his home in Germany and
    came to the United States. His associates here were persons
    who spent their leisure time in dissipation. One morning
    he awoke after a drunken night and decided to go down on
    West Madison Street with the bums where he thought he
    belonged. He despaired of life. He wandered into one of the
    missions to get warm and was converted. Although he had a
    meager education he is now studying in one of the religious
    institutions of the city with the expressed purpose of
    doing religious work.

    68. P. D. came into the mission drunk one night and was
    converted. Several times previous to this he had been
    thrown out for disturbing the meeting. According to his own
    statement he entered the mission one time and was “saved
    and stayed saved.” He is now general labor foreman for a
    large construction company.

Of course there are temporary converts who become victims of their
old environment. For awhile they go straight, but eventually they
yield to “the world, the flesh, and the devil.” Some periodic
converts kneel before the altar every year and each time go out
with renewed determination to avoid sin, but they often succumb the
first time they are subjected to temptation. The mission workers
expect this periodicity of conversion with some of these men just
as they expect the winter.

“Backsliders” are usually well meaning men but weak. Any convert
who remains on the “stem” is likely to become a “backslider.” The
emotional nature of many of these men may induce a mood of sincere
repentance, but it is difficult to keep the resolution to reform.

    69. L. S. is a youth of the city. He is twenty-three. His
    parents are strict German Lutherans and he spent several
    years in a Lutheran parochial school. He left home over a
    month ago (April, 1922) because of some trouble he had with
    his folks. Shortly after he entered the ---- ---- Mission
    on Madison Street where he “got religion” but in a week he
    “back slid.” He was melted into consenting and was rushed
    to the front and “saved” before he knew what had happened.
    After the men on the outside laughed at him he “weakened.”
    Now he feels that there is “nothing to religion anyway,”
    though he admits that the mission worker at one time kept
    him out of jail.


MISSION BREAD LINES

During the winter of 1921-22, twelve of the missions in Chicago,
maintained “bread lines,” that is, dispensed food, as coffee and
doughnuts, or a bowl of soup and vegetables. The term “bread line,”
used figuratively for “free lunch,” originally described the long
lines of men during years of want and unemployment waiting outside
relief stations for bread and soup.

Missions without “bread lines” claim that the food is given as a
bait to get conversions. They hold that “meal ticket” converts lose
their religion as soon as they become economically self-sustaining.
The unregenerate homeless man looks down upon the regular
attendants at the mission, and accuses them of getting converted
for “pie card” reasons. He calls them “mission stiffs,” a term as
uncomplimentary as for an Indian to be called a “squaw man.”

[Illustration: A FREE LUNCH AT A MISSION]

[Illustration:

    _By permission of the Helping Hand Mission_

A WINTER’S NIGHT IN A MISSION]


WELFARE ORGANIZATIONS

The mission is not the only institution to which the homeless man
turns. Social service agencies, public and private, many of which
are organized primarily for family rehabilitation, have given
assistance to the homeless man.

The United Charities, although engaged chiefly in work with
families, has a homeless-men division. During the year ending
September 30, 1922, 1,026 non-family men received assistance. Of
these, 629 were given material or personal service, and 397 were
referred to other organizations. The Jewish Social Service Bureau
also maintains a homeless men’s department which, in the year 1921,
gave personal and material aid to 1,333 men. During 1922, the
number of men helped fell to less than half this number, largely as
a result of the improved industrial situation. The Bureau works in
close association with two Jewish sheltering-homes, which together
house about 70 men. Homeless men who apply for assistance are cared
for here until their cases are carefully investigated. The Central
Bureau of (Catholic) Charities, in conjunction with the Mission of
the Holy Cross, provides shelter and food for destitute men, and
aids them to become self-supporting.

The Chicago Urban League, organized to promote co-ordination and
co-operation among existing agencies for the welfare of Negroes,
maintains an employment bureau for men out of work. During
the winters of 1920-21 and 1921-22, when thousands of men[69]
were without house accommodations, the League took the lead in
co-operating with churches and other organizations to secure
temporary housing quarters.

The hotels for homeless men maintained by the Salvation Army and by
the Christian Industrial League have already been described.[70] In
addition, both organizations maintain industrial homes where men
are given temporary work and are helped to become self-supporting.

The American Legion has been active in behalf of unemployed
ex-service men, many of whom are also homeless men. Its work has
consisted chiefly in getting jobs for the unemployed, and in this
it has had the hearty co-operation of the newspapers. The Legion
Hall was turned over to homeless veterans for sleeping quarters
during the winter of 1921-22.

The Chicago Municipal Lodging House was first opened on December
21, 1901. It provided free temporary shelter and food for
destitute, homeless men. At first it was operated under the
Department of Police, but was transferred on January 1, 1908,
to the Department of Health, and later, on April 17, 1917,
transferred to the Department of Public Welfare. In its early
history, the Municipal Lodging House was fortunate in having as
its superintendent men like Raymond Robins, James Mullenbach, and
Charles B. Ball, who set high standards for its administration.[71]
The Municipal Lodging House met the severe test of the unemployment
years of 1908 and 1914 by showing how its organization could expand
to meet extraordinary situations. For example, while only 23,642
lodgings were given in 1907, the number rose to 105,564 in 1908;
and the 78,392 lodgings given in 1913 rose to 452,361 in 1914.
The Municipal Lodging House closed in 1918-19 because of lack of
applicants during wartime prosperity, but it did not reopen during
the hard winters of 1920-21 and 1921-22. Many destitute men, who
would otherwise have been inmates of the Municipal Lodging House
with the medical attention, sanitary sleeping quarters, and other
assistance for rehabilitation which it offered, became instead
“regular feeders” at the “bread lines” and permanent patrons of
Hogan’s “flop.” There seems to be no doubt that the absence of
municipal provision made for an increase of promiscuous begging and
injudicious almsgivings.

Many other institutions and agencies regularly or sporadically
extend assistance to the homeless man. Yet, in perhaps no other
field of social work is there more overlapping and duplication of
effort, or so low standards of service. For example, the missions
and some of the churches, working independently of one another,
boast that they feed and clothe the needy, but they make little
or no effort to distinguish between those who do and those who do
not deserve assistance. Consequently, the missions lay themselves
open to exploitation by the homeless man. A constructive program
for rehabilitation demands the co-ordination of the efforts of all
agencies now engaged in serving his needs.


THE HOMELESS MAN AND RELIGION

The missions, and for that matter, the welfare agencies are
unpopular with the habitués of Hobohemia. The hobo, in his songs
and in conversation, shows unmistakably his aversion to all
efforts to remake his character or to reshape his destiny. This
feeling of antipathy is naturally strongest with the adherents of
the I.W.W. who come in competition and conflict with the mission
worker.

With full recognition of the cynical reaction of the average hobo
to the mission, it cannot be denied that thousands of homeless men
are converted every winter, and that a certain proportion of these,
how large no one knows, lead permanently changed lives. The mission
touches the inner life of these men in a way that no social agency
or organization has ever done, or perhaps can do.

Even the homeless man has aspirations above the satisfaction of
his physical wants; he desires to live in a larger, more complete
sense. The I.W.W., with its radical program of changing “things as
they are,” appeals to the restless and rebellious spirit of youth.
But the broken man, or the old man who has given up hope, finds
comfort and peace in adapting himself to “things as they are.”
Religion to him is just this change of attitude, “making oneself
right with God.” While the young man is confident that he can right
what is wrong in this world, the old man looks to the next world to
compensate for the inequalities and injustice of present existence.


FOOTNOTES:

[67] In the section on “Types of Missions” and “Permanent,
Periodic, and Temporary Converts,” the writer is indebted to
material furnished by Mr. L. Guy Brown from an unpublished study of
“Missions in Chicago.”

[68] One mission of this type on West Madison Street records
that during the year ending September, 1921, 56,718 homeless men
visited the mission. During this time 4,016 men knelt at the altar
(were converted). Nearly 29,000 meals were served to hungry and
unemployed men, while 4,145 tickets were issued which entitled the
bearer to sleep at a flophouse or cheap rooming-house.

[69] The officials of the League estimate that there were 7,000
homeless men among the Negroes in the winter of 1921-22.

[70] See pp. 27-28.

[71] See Raymond Robins, “What Constitutes a Model Municipal
Lodging House,” _Proceedings of the National Conference of
Charities and Correction_ (1904), 155-66.




APPENDIXES




APPENDIX A

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS


This study has pictured the life and the problems of the group of
homeless migratory and casual workers in Chicago. It now remains
to sum up the findings of the investigation and to outline the
recommendations which seem to flow from the facts.[72]


FINDINGS

    1. The homeless casual and migratory workers, while found
    in all parts of the city, are segregated in great numbers
    in four distinct areas: West Madison Street, Lower South
    State Street (near the Loop), North Clark Street, and Upper
    State Street (the Negro section).

    2. The number of homeless men in these areas fluctuates
    greatly with the seasons and with conditions of employment.

    3. The concentration of casual and migratory workers in
    this city is the natural result of two factors: (_a_) the
    development of Chicago as a great industrial community with
    diversified enterprises requiring a variety of unskilled
    as well as skilled laborers, and (_b_) the position of
    Chicago as a center of transportation, of commerce and of
    employment for the states of the Mississippi Valley.

    4. The homeless men in Chicago fall into five groups: (_a_)
    the seasonal laborer, (_b_) the migratory, casual laborer,
    the hobo, (_c_) the migratory non-worker, the tramp, (_d_)
    the non-migratory casual laborer, the so-called “home
    guard,” (_e_) the bum. Groups _b_, _c_, _d_, and _e_
    constitute what are known in economic writings as “The
    Residuum of Industry.” In addition to these groups of the
    homeless casual and migratory workers are the groups of
    seasonal laborers and the men out of work, which expand and
    contract with the periods of economic depression and of
    industrial prosperity.

    5. The causes which reduce a man to the status of a
    homeless migratory and casual worker may be classified
    under five main heads as follows:

      _a_) _Unemployment and Seasonal Work_: these
      maladjustments of modern industry which disorganize the
      routine of life of the individual and destroy regular
      habits of work.

      _b_) _Industrial Inadequacy_: “the misfits of industry,”
      whether due to physical handicaps, mental deficiency,
      occupational disease, or lack of vocational training.

      _c_) _Defects of Personality_: as feeble-mindedness,
      constitutional inferiority, or egocentricity, which lead
      to the conflict of the person with constituted authority
      in industry, society, and government.

      _d_) _Crises in the Life of the Person_: as family
      conflicts, misconduct, and crime, which exile a man from
      home and community and detach him from normal social ties.

      _e_) _Racial or National Discrimination_: where race,
      nationality, or social class of the person enters as a
      factor of adverse selection for employment.

      _f_) _Wanderlust_: the desire for new experience,
      excitement, and adventure, which moves the boy “to see
      the world.”

    6. To satisfy the wants and wishes of the thousands of
    homeless migratory and casual workers at the lowest
    possible cost, specialized institutions and enterprises
    have been established in Chicago. These include:

      _a_) Employment agencies.

      _b_) Restaurants and lodging-houses.

      _c_) Barber colleges.

      _d_) Outfitting stores and clothing exchanges.

      _e_) Pawnshops.

      _f_) Movies and burlesques.

      _g_) Missions.

      _h_) Local political and social organizations, as “The
      Industrial Workers of the World” and the “Hobo College.”

      _i_) Secular street meetings and radical bookstores.

    7. Chicago as the great clearing house of employment
    for the states of the Mississippi Valley naturally and
    inevitably becomes the temporary home of men out of work
    for the entire region. The following appear to be the facts
    in regard to the workers and the conditions of employment:

      _a_) Fluctuations of industry, such as seasonal changes,
      and of unemployment, force large numbers of men into the
      group of homeless migratory and casual workers.

      _b_) At the same time, the homeless migratory and
      casual worker develops irregular habits of work and a
      life-policy of “living from hand to mouth.”

      _c_) Employment records indicate that the lower grade of
      casual workers prefer work by the day, or employment by
      the week or two, to “permanent” positions of three months
      or longer.

      _d_) The Illinois Free Employment offices, efficiently
      administered with simple but well-kept records and
      with courteous treatment of applicants, placed 50,482
      persons in the year ending September 30, 1922, mainly in
      positions in and near Chicago.

      _e_) The private employment agencies dealing with the
      homeless man, about fifty in number, which are, in
      general, poorly equipped, with the minimum of record
      keeping required by law and with inconsiderate treatment
      of applicants, place about 200,000 men a year in
      positions, for the most part, outside of Chicago.

      _f_) The law relating to private employment agencies as
      approved June 15, 1909, in force July 1, 1909, and as
      amended and approved June 7, 1911, in force July 1, 1911,
      appears not to be enforced in two points:

        i) the requirement that sections three (3), four (4),
        and five (5) of the law be posted in a conspicuous
        place in each room of the agency; and

        ii) the return to the applicant of three-fifths of the
        registration and other fees upon failure of applicant
        to accept position or upon his discharge for cause.

    8. The health and hygiene of the homeless migratory and
    casual worker is of vital concern not only for his economic
    efficiency but also because of the relation of his high
    mobility to the spread of communicable diseases.

    9. The homeless migratory and casual workers constitute a
    womanless group. The results of this sex isolation are:

      _a_) No opportunity for the expression and sublimation of
      the sex impulse in the normal life of the family.

      _b_) In a few cases, the substitution for marriage of
      free unions more or less casual, usually terminated at
      the will of the man without due regard to the claims of
      the woman.

      _c_) The dependence of the greatest number of homeless
      men upon the professional prostitute of the lowest grade
      and the cheapest sort.

      _d_) The prevalence of sex perversions, as masturbation and
      homosexuality.

    10. The attraction for the boy of excitement and adventure
    renders him peculiarly susceptible to the “call of the road.”

      _a_) Hundreds of Chicago boys, mainly but not entirely
      of wage-earning families, every spring “beat their way”
      to the harvest fields, impelled by wanderlust, and the
      opportunity for work away from home.

      _b_) Of these a certain proportion acquire the migratory
      habit and may pass through successive stages from a
      high-grade seasonal worker to the lowest type of bum.

      _c_) The boy on the road and in the city is constantly
      under the pressure of homosexual exploitation by confirmed
      perverts in the migratory group.

      _d_) Certain areas of the city frequented by boys have
      been found to be resorts and rendezvous for homosexual
      prostitution.

    11. While the majority of the homeless migratory workers are
    American citizens of native stock:

      _a_) They are in large numbers for practical purposes
      disfranchised because they seldom remain in any community
      long enough to secure legal residence.

      _b_) They constitute a shifting and shiftless group
      without property and family, and with no effective
      participation in the civic life of the community.

      _c_) According to statements from police authorities they
      contribute but slightly to the volume of serious crime.

      _d_) Both on the road and in the city, they are at all
      times subject to arbitrary handling and arrest by private
      and public police and to summary trial and sentence by
      the court.

      _e_) The attitude of Chicago, like that of other
      communities toward the homeless man, has been a policy of
      defense intrusted to the police department for execution.

    12. Social service to the homeless migratory and casual
    worker has for the most part been remedial rather than
    preventive; unorganized and haphazard rather than organized
    and co-ordinated.

      _a_) Professional beggars and fakers exploit public
      sympathy and credulity for individual gain to the
      disadvantage of the men who need and deserve assistance.

      _b_) The missions and certain churches feed, clothe,
      and provide shelter for several thousand men during the
      winter months.

      _c_) The Dawes Hotel, the Christian Industrial League,
      and the Salvation Army hotels provide lodging at a low
      charge.

      _d_) The Salvation Army maintains the Industrial Home with
      workshops which accommodate a limited number of men.

      _e_) The United Charities and the Central Charity
      (Catholic) Bureau, although concerned mainly with family
      relief, give certain forms of assistance to the homeless
      man.

      _f_) The Jewish Social Service Bureau maintains a
      department for homeless men, which acts as a referring
      agency to two shelter houses.

      _g_) The American Legion and other patriotic organizations
      have provided assistance of various types to the ex-service
      man out of employment.

      _h_) The Municipal Lodging House, which closed its doors
      in 1918, has not been reopened, despite the evident need
      of the winters of 1920-21 and 1921-22.

      _i_) The Cook County agent provides free transportation
      to non-residents to place of legal residence and refers
      residents to Oak Forest Infirmary.

      _j_) The county and city hospitals and dispensaries provide
      free medical care.

      _k_) Unco-ordinated effort of the organizations for
      service to the homeless man has resulted in duplication
      of activities, a low standard of work, and the neglect of
      a constructive program of rehabilitation.


RECOMMENDATIONS

The findings of this study indicate conclusively: (_a_) that any
fundamental solution of the problem is national and not local, and
(_b_) that the problem of the homeless migratory worker is but an
aspect of the larger problems of industry, such as unemployment,
seasonal work, and labor turnover.

NATIONAL PROGRAM

    The committee approves, as a national program for the
    control of the problem, the recommendations suggested
    by the studies on unemployment and migratory laborers
    contained in the _Final Report of the Commission on
    Industrial Relations_ (pp. 114-15; 103):

    1. The enactment of appropriate legislation modifying
    the title of the Bureau of Immigration to “Bureau of
    Immigration and Employment” and providing the statutory
    authority and appropriations necessary for--

      _a_) The establishment of a national employment
      system,[73] under the Department of Labor, with a staff
      of well-paid and specially qualified officials in the
      main offices at least.

      _b_) The licensing, regulation, and supervision of all
      private employment agencies doing an interstate business.

      _c_) The investigation and preparation of plans for the
      regularization of employment, the decasualization of
      labor, the utilization of public work to fill in periods
      of business depression, insurance against unemployment
      in such trades and industries as may seem desirable,
      and other measures designed to promote regularity and
      steadiness of employment.

    2. The immediate creation of a special board made up of
    the properly qualified officials from the Departments of
    Agriculture, Commerce, Interior, and Labor, and from the
    Board of Army Engineers to prepare plans for performing the
    largest possible amount of public work during the winter,
    and to devise a program for the future for performing,
    during periods of depression, such public work as road
    building, construction of public building, reforestation,
    irrigation, and drainage of swamps. The success attending
    the construction of the Panama Canal indicates the
    enormous national construction works which might be done
    to the advantage of the entire nation during such periods
    of depression. Similar boards or commissions should be
    established in the various states and municipalities.

    3. The Interstate Commerce Commission should be directed
    by Congress to investigate and report the most feasible
    plan of providing for the transportation of workers at the
    lowest reasonable rates, and, at the same time, measures
    necessary to eliminate the stealing of rides on railways.
    If special transportation rates for workers are provided,
    tickets may be issued only to those who secure employment
    through public employment agencies.

    4. The establishment by states, municipalities, and,
    through the Department of Labor, the federal government,
    of sanitary workingmen’s hotels in which the prices for
    accommodations shall be adjusted to the cost of operation.
    If such workingmen’s hotels are established, the Post
    Office Department should establish branch postal savings
    banks in connection therewith.

    5. The establishment by the municipal, state, and federal
    governments of colonies or farms for “down-and-outs” in
    order to rehabilitate them by means of proper food, regular
    habits of living and regular work that will train them
    for lives of usefulness. Such colonies should provide for
    hospital treatment of cases which require it.

THE CHICAGO PLAN FOR THE HOMELESS MAN

    For the local situation and for such action as lies in the
    hands (_a_) of the citizens of this community, (_b_) of the
    city of Chicago, (_c_) of Cook County, and (_d_) of the
    state of Illinois, this committee recommends:

    I. AS A PROGRAM FOR IMMEDIATE ACTION--

      1. _The establishment of a Municipal Clearing House for
      Non-Family Men._

        _a_) _Purpose_:

          i) To provide facilities for the registration,
          examination, classification, and treatment of
          homeless migratory and casual workers in order, on
          the basis of individual case-study.

          ii) To secure by reference to the appropriate agency
          emergency relief, physical and mental rehabilitation,
          industrial training, commitment to institutional
          care, return to legal residence, and satisfactory
          employment.

        _b_) _Organization_: The Clearing House will maintain
        the following departments:

          i) _Information Bureau_: to provide information in
          regard to employment, public institutions, social
          agencies, indorsed hotels, and lodging-houses, etc.

          ii) _Registration_: by card, giving name, age,
          occupation, physical condition, reference, residence,
          nearest relative or friend, number of lodgings,
          disposition, and all other information.

          iii) _Vocational Clinic_: to provide medical,
          psychiatric, psychological, and social examination as
          a basis of treatment.

          iv) _Records Office_: to record findings of
          examination, to clear with other agencies, local and
          national, and to enter recommendations and results of
          treatment.

          v) _Social Service Bureau_: to provide for both
          immediate and after-care service for the men under
          the supervision of the Clearing House.

        _c_) _Personnel_: to consist of director, clerical
        force, interviewers, social workers, and experts, as
        physician, psychiatrist, psychologist, and sociologist.

        _d_) _Intake of Clearing House_: registrants to be
        referred to the Clearing House by:

          i) _Citizens_, to whom homeless men have applied for
          relief.

          ii) _Missions_, where food or lodging have been
          received by homeless men.

          iii) _Charities._

          iv) _Travelers’ Aid Society._

          v) _Local organizations._

          vi) _Police Department_: closing of police stations
          to lodgers and provision for supply of such
          applicants with tickets of admission to the Clearing
          House; direction by police to the Clearing House of
          persons found for the first time begging.

          vii) _Courts, police stations, House of Correction,
          and county jail_: provision to every homeless man
          or boy upon discharge with ticket of admission to
          Clearing House guaranteeing three days’ liberty
          with food, lodging, and an opportunity for honest
          employment.

        _e_) _Classification_: As a result of examination in
        the Vocational Clinic the men will be divided for
        treatment into three groups: (1) boys and youths,
        (2) employable men, and (3) unemployable men. The
        unemployable will be further divided into: (i) the
        physically handicapped, (ii) the mentally defective,
        (iii) alcoholics and drug addicts, (iv) the habitually
        idle, (v) the untrained, and (vi) the aged.

        _f_) _Treatment_: Upon the basis of the preceding
        examination and classification, the men will be given
        the following services:

          i) Those in need of emergency relief, temporary
          lodging, meals and bath, by the agencies in the field
          and by the Municipal Lodging House (when reopened).

          ii) Those in need of clean clothes, free laundry work
          at the Municipal Laundry (to be established).

          iii) Those who are proper charges of other
          communities and who may be better cared for there,
          transportation from relatives or from Cook County
          agent.

          iv) Those in need of medical service, treatment at
          the Cook County Hospital, Municipal Tuberculosis
          Sanitarium, or dispensaries, and observation at the
          Psychopathic Hospital.

          v) For the unemployable physically disabled,
          education as provided in the Chicago plan for the
          physically handicapped (under consideration by the
          state in co-operation with private agencies).

          vi) For the unemployable but physically able-bodied,
          individual arrangements for industrial education.

          vii) For the aged and permanently physically
          disabled, placement in the Oak Forest Home.

          viii) For the employable, references with vocational
          diagnosis and recommendation to the Illinois Free
          Employment offices and other employment agencies.

          ix) For persons under the supervision of the Municipal
          Clearing House, when desirable, individual case work
          and after-care.

          x) For incorrigible vagrants and beggars for whom no
          constructive treatment is provided in the program
          for immediate action (see constructive treatment in
          “Program for Future Action”) commitment to the House
          of Correction.

        _g_) _Administration_: The Clearing House to be
        administered by the city of Chicago under the City
        Department of Public Welfare; the director of the
        Clearing House to be also superintendent of the Lodging
        House and of the Municipal Laundry and the Municipal
        Bath House, a physician on full time to be assigned by
        the City Department of Public Health, a psychiatrist
        and psychologist by the state criminologist of the
        State Department of Public Welfare.

        _h_) _Advisory Committee_: Under the auspices of
        the Chicago Council of Social Agencies, an advisory
        committee to the director of the Clearing House be
        organized to be composed of public and private agencies
        and civic, philanthropic, commercial, industrial, and
        labor organizations, co-operating with the Clearing
        House.

        _i_) _Financing_: An appeal to be made at once to
        the city council for funds to equip and maintain the
        Municipal Clearing House, Municipal Lodging House,
        Laundry and Bath House, to provide for the following
        budget:

TENTATIVE ANNUAL BUDGET FOR CARING ADEQUATELY FOR HOMELESS
TRANSIENT MEN IN CHICAGO

  ================================================================
                 Clearing House          |  Maximum*  |  Minimum
  ---------------------------------------+------------+-----------
  Rent of headquarters, including light  |            |
        and heat                         | $ 2,500.00 |
  Heat and light in free quarters        |            | $ 1,000.00
  Equipment                              |   1,000.00 |   1,000.00
  Office supplies, stationery, printing, |            |
        etc.                             |     500.00 |     500.00
  Staff:                                 |            |
    Superintendent                       |   6,000.00 |   4,000.00
    Assistant                            |   2,500.00 |
    Six interviewers and field workers   |   9,000.00 |
    Two interviewers and field workers   |            |   4,000.00
    Two stenographers                    |   2,400.00 |
    One stenographer                     |            |   1,500.00
    Physician (part time)                |   1,800.00 |
    Psychiatrist (part time)             |   1,800.00 |
    Director of vocational guidance      |   4,000.00 |
    Janitors                             |   1,800.00 |   1,800.00
                                         | ---------- | ----------
        Total                            | $33,300.00 | $13,800.00
  ----------------------------------------------------------------

  * The maximum budget represents expenditures in the event
  headquarters cannot be secured free of rent, services of physician
  and psychiatrist cannot be secured from city and Institute for
  Juvenile Research, and at a time when a full staff will be
  necessary.

      2. _The reopening of the Municipal Lodging House_ under
      the following conditions (adapted from “Program for Model
      Municipal Lodging House,” by Raymond Robins):

        _a_) _Administration_: under the City Department of
        Public Health in close affiliation with the Clearing
        House for Homeless Men.

        _b_) _Purpose_: to provide free, under humane and
        sanitary conditions, food, lodging, and bath, with
        definite direction for such permanent relief as is
        needed for any man or boy stranded in Chicago.

        _c_) _Registration and preliminary physical
        examination_: made in Clearing House a condition to
        admission.

        _d_) _Standard of service_:

          i) Sanitary building.

          ii) Wholesome food.

          iii) Dormitories quiet, beds comfortable and clean.

          iv) First-aid treatment: vaccination, bandages and
          simple medicaments furnished free.

          v) Isolation ward for men suffering from inebriety,
          insanity, venereal diseases, etc.

          vi) Fumigation of lodgers’ clothing, including hat
          and shoes, every night.

          vii) Nightly shower bath required.

      3. _The establishment of a Municipal Laundry and a
      Municipal Bath House by the city of Chicago_: to be
      operated in close affiliation with the Municipal Clearing
      House.

      4. _Utilization of existing facilities for industrial
      training_: Co-operation with existing educational
      institutions for the vocational training of boys and
      youths and of the physically handicapped, mentally
      defective, and industrially inadequate who are
      unemployable but willing to work. (See “Program for
      Future Action.”)

      5. _Employment agencies_:

        _a_) The extension of the service of the Illinois Free
        Employment office.

        _b_) The enforcement of the law relating to private
        employment agencies: the requirement that sections
        three (3), four (4), and five (5), of the law be posted
        in a conspicuous place in each room of the agency;
        and the return to the applicant of three-fifths of
        the registration and other fees upon the failure of
        applicant to accept position or upon his discharge for
        cause.

        _c_) The further study of private employment agencies
        and of labor camps in order to provide the homeless man
        with adequate protection against exploitation.

      6. _Public health and housing_:

        _a_) The further building of sanitary workingmen’s
        hotels with low charge for accommodations.

        _b_) The maintenance and raising of standards of
        cheap hotels in Chicago through rigid inspection and
        tightening of requirements.

        _c_) Medical examination, inspection, and supervision
        of men in flops, together with vaccination and
        hospitalization of needy cases.

      7. _Vagrancy Court_: the reorganization of the Vagrancy
      Court for the hearing of cases of incorrigible vagrants
      and beggars on the basis of the investigations of the
      Clearing House.

      8. _Protection of the boy_:

        _a_) Prevention of aimless wandering through the
        provision of wholesome and stimulating recreation,
        through the extension of all activities for boys, and
        through the further development of vocational education
        and supervision. The Vocational Guidance Bureau of the
        Board of Education should be removed to an area of the
        city free from unwholesome contacts.

        _b_) An educational campaign organized through the
        Mid-West Boy’s Club Federation should be carried on
        in all the boys’ organizations in Chicago showing the
        danger of “flipping” trains and playing in railroad
        yards. The National Safety Council has a great deal of
        material which could be used in such a campaign.

        _c_) Co-operation with such organization as the
        Brotherhood of Railway Trainmen, the special police
        organizations of the railroads, the Lake Carriers
        Association, and automobile clubs, in a program to
        prevent boys wandering away from home. Pamphlets should
        be prepared for distribution, asking for co-operation
        and enforcement of working certificate regulations in
        this and other states, child labor laws, juvenile court
        laws, etc.

        _d_) The enlistment officers of the army, navy, and
        marine should demand the presentation of a birth
        certificate in all cases in which they doubt the age of
        the applicant.

        _e_) The co-operation of the managers of the hotels
        and lodging-houses in an effort to keep boys under
        seventeen out of the hotels in the Hobohemian areas, or
        at least to use their influence in preventing boys and
        men from rooming together.

        _f_) Because most of the contacts the boy has with
        tramps are unwholesome, the police should not permit
        boys to loiter or play in the areas most frequented
        by the tramp population; namely, West Madison Street,
        South State Street, North Clark Street, and adjacent
        territory. Parents ought to be made aware of the nature
        of the contacts the boy has with the tramp in these
        areas and in the parks.

        _g_) The assignment of special plain-clothes policemen
        experienced in dealing with vagrants to the parks and
        other places in which tramps congregate. They should be
        instructed to pick up and hold in the Detention Home
        any boy under seventeen years found in company with a
        tramp.

        _h_) More strenuous effort should be made to occupy
        the leisure time of boys who frequent the districts in
        which the tramps congregate. It is the boy with leisure
        time who is the most susceptible to the unwholesome
        contacts. Supervised recreation should be carried on to
        an extent that boys who play in Hobohemian areas might
        be attracted to other sections. When school is not in
        session a more extensive program of summer camps might
        help.

        _i_) Since the Juvenile Court of Cook County is
        equipped to investigate the cases of vagrant boys under
        seventeen in Chicago, and return them to their homes,
        all vagrant boys apprehended by anyone in the daytime
        should be reported to the chief probation officer,
        Juvenile Court. Vagrant boys over seventeen should be
        directed to the Clearing House.

        _j_) After five o’clock vagrant boys under seventeen
        should be turned over to the police who will take them
        to the Detention Home, from which home they will be
        taken to the office of the chief probation officer the
        first thing in the morning.

        _k_) Whenever a boy under seventeen is taken in custody
        by the police, because of contact with tramps, or
        whenever a boy is held as a complaining witness against
        a tramp, he should always be reported to the Juvenile
        Court. It is the responsibility of the court to put the
        boy in touch with some proper individual or agency, so
        that he will be adequately supervised and befriended in
        the future.

      9. _Publicity and public co-operation_: the education
      of the public through news items in the daily press and
      editorial comment; public co-operation through tickets
      of admission to the Clearing House providing food and
      lodging in the Municipal Lodging House constantly to
      be distributed through societies, institutions, hotels,
      business offices, churches, clubs, housewives, and other
      citizens.

    II. A PROGRAM FOR FUTURE ACTION--

      1. _That a bond issue_ be submitted for approval to the
      voters of the city of Chicago providing for the erection
      of adequate buildings for a Municipal Clearing House,
      Municipal Lodging House, and Municipal Laundry and Bath
      House.

      2. _That an Industrial Institute_ be established by the
      state of Illinois in Chicago for the vocational training
      of the physically handicapped, mentally defective, and
      industrially inadequate, who are unemployable, but
      willing to work.

      3. _That a State Farm Colony for Industrial
      Rehabilitation_ be established by the state of
      Illinois for the compulsory detention and re-education
      of unemployables, such as beggars, vagrants, petty
      criminals, who are unwilling to receive industrial
      training.

      4. _That a Department of Industrial Training of the House
      of Correction_ be opened, pending the establishment of
      the State Farm Colony for Industrial Rehabilitation, for
      the commitment and re-education of unemployables, such as
      beggars, vagrants, and petty criminals.


FOOTNOTES:

[72] The findings and recommendations of this study were prepared
by the Committee on Homeless Men of the Chicago Council of Social
Agencies and its report accepted by the Council.

[73] The United States Employment Service established in 1918
requires adequate appropriations for its efficient functioning.




APPENDIX B

DOCUMENTS AND MATERIALS


CHAPTER I. HOBOHEMIA DEFINED

    115. _Summary of a Study of Four Hundred Tramps_, Nels
    Anderson, summer, 1921.

    124. An evening spent on the benches in Grant Park;
    description of men and their talk.

    135. _A Study of Eight Cases of Homeless Men in Lodging
    Houses_, R. N. Wood, December, 1922.

    145. An unpublished paper on the hobo, “Along the Main Stem
    with Red,” Harry M. Beardsley, March 20, 1917.

    146. _Chicago’s Hobo Area_, Sherman O. Cooper, December,
    1917.

    157. _Chicago’s Hobo District_, Melville J. Herskovits,
    December, 1919.

    159. Comparative statistics for the three wards in which
    Hobohemia is located, 1910-20.


CHAPTER II. THE JUNGLES: THE HOMELESS MAN ABROAD

    1. “A Day in the Jungles,” A. W. Dragstedt, a hobo who knows
    the jungles.

    76. “Job Hunting via Box-Car in the Northwest,” _Hobo News_,
    Bill Quirke, September, 1921.


CHAPTER III. THE LODGING HOUSE: THE HOMELESS MAN AT HOME

    2-3. Recital of an evening spent by Nels Anderson in a
    flophouse, April, 1922.

    70. Statistics: Bridewell population, lodging-house
    patrons, registered voters.

    79. _Report of Visit to Ten Gambling Houses in Hobohemia_,
    Nels Anderson, January 1, 1923.

    105. Casual worker, ex-soldier, twenty-eight, few days in
    town, lost money in gambling-house.

    151. _A Dozen Hotels in the Loop_, George F. David, August,
    1922.


CHAPTER IV. “GETTING BY” IN HOBOHEMIA

    4. Jewish hobo, parasitic philosophy, middle-aged, begs from
    Jewish agencies in all cities.

    5. Transient dreamer, twenty-seven, known to many agencies
    in different cities.

    6. Boy in teens, Jewish, moves with ease from agency to
    agency, good solicitor.

    7. City bum, twenty-four, petty robber, works occasionally,
    jail experience.

    8. “Fat,” a panhandler with a self-justifying philosophy,
    works on favorable jobs.

    9. Englishman, forty-one, paralyzed arm, alcoholic,
    mendicant, was a bricklayer.

    89. Faker, Bulgarian, forty-five, plays deaf and dumb,
    “works” restaurants.

    90. Home-guard bum, sixty-nine, works at odd jobs, often
    mendicant, drinks some.

    95. Ex-soldier, funds about gone, going East for work,
    clean, sober, “working” charities.

    97. Boy tramp, eighteen, left home to avoid school, wants
    to be engineer, works.

    98. Two young men temporarily without money and work,
    adjusted in a few days.

    102. City bum, thirty-five, talkative, lazy and unkempt,
    mendicant much of time.

    103. Away from family for work, gets money from wife, loafs,
    later returns home.

    104. Jewish tramp, sells papers, tin worker, served time in
    jail for wife desertion.

    111. Loafs, fat, unattractive, works some, not welcome home;
    his family sends him money.

    112. Well-to-do sister ashamed of him, sends him money; he
    calls it “borrowing.”

    113. Beggar with a philosophy, condemns peddlers who beg
    part of time, works occasionally.

    123. Spanish war and world-war veteran, forty-six,
    compensation, tries to go to school.

    131. Description of life with the “slum proletariat” by one
    of them.

    152. _Mendicancy in Chicago_, Melvin L. Olsen, December,
    1919.

    155. _Case Studies of Beggars in Chicago_, Joseph Arnsdorff,
    December 16, 1919.

    161. Statement from the secretary of the Mid-City Commercial
    Association on the hobo problem.


CHAPTER V. WHY DO MEN LEAVE HOME?

    10. Pioneer hobo and tramp, “played all the games,”
    fifty-six, blames self for misspent life.

    11. Belgian, fifty-eight, coal miner, lumber jack, Chicago
    in winter, single, seldom penniless.

    12. Pioneer hobo, fifty-one, perhaps dying, miner’s “con,”
    away from home (Ohio) thirty years.

    13. Migratory worker, single, fifty-six, ever restless,
    mines, sea, harvest, sheep shearer.

    14. Anemic man, lung trouble, textile worker, light work
    only, hopes open air will help.

    15. Beggar, peddler, one leg, industrial accident, justifies
    begging and drink.

    16. Migrant, would settle down, drinks, loses jobs, single,
    getting old, health failing.

    17. “Dope” user, weak, anemic, poorly clad, dirty, beat way
    from Boston.

    18. Old man, seventy-eight, poor-farm and hospital
    experience, mendicant, lives on fifty or sixty cents a day.

    19. Restless young man, twenty-four, no permanent desires,
    carpenter, capable, sober, congenial.

    20. Restless young worker, easily bored by the monotony of a
    job.

    26. Irish, ex-soldier, ex-sailor, twenty-seven, sings, wants
    to study music, ex-secretary of “Hobo College.”

    27. Feeble-minded, left home in war time, odd jobs, in town
    often, often in missions.

    28. Pessimistic, imaginative, unstable, about forty-five,
    fair worker.

    29. Periodical drinker, quarrelsome when drunk, otherwise
    good worker.

    30. College man, twenty-seven, ex-salesman, left wife,
    homosexual experience, avoids work.

    31. Chronic drinker, stockyards worker, seldom migrates,
    many arrests, away from wife twelve years.

    32. Boy tramp, sixteen, on way to Texas, from Ohio, parents
    dead, only brother a soldier.

    33. Left home when jilted by girl, too sensitive to return,
    very transient.

    34. Returned home after jail experience, humiliated, left
    home, away for several years.

    35. Ex-soldier, as small-town boy left home in crisis,
    stayed away to make bluff good, twenty-two.

    36. Boy left home in fear of punishment from father,
    returns occasionally.

    37. Migrant because of trouble over woman, about thirty,
    dare not return, radical.

    38. Became migratory to avoid paying alimony, dare not
    return, about forty.

    39. Boy tramp, nineteen, egotist, traveled much, works
    little, gambles, jail record.

    40. Oldest boy becomes runaway, twenty, other boys in family
    follow, dislikes father.


CHAPTER VI. THE HOBO AND THE TRAMP

    41. Scotchman, thirty-two, single, ex-soldier, sailor, nurse
    in winters, casual in summer.

    42. Deck hand summers, migrant to South in winter, single,
    generally sober.

    43. Carpenter, casual, often discharged, would settle but
    losing efficiency by drink.

    44. Old man, fifty-eight, plasterer, fair worker but casual,
    has ceased migrating, sober.

    45. One-time harvest hand, seldom leaves Chicago, peddles
    trinkets, gambles.

    46. Romantic tramp, revels in wandering, carries tiny
    camera, seeks notice, does not work.

    86. Recital of experiences of boy tramp, now a doctor in
    Chicago.

    91. Russian, able-bodied hobo, about thirty-five, clean,
    sober, works in and near Chicago.

    92. Boy, eighteen, on way home (Indiana) from winter in
    West, plans to leave tramp life.

    100. Congenial, irresponsible man of twenty-five, sober,
    clean, very transient, works as porter.

    109. Runaway boy from Hammond, Indiana, sixteen, in
    Hobohemia looking for work, very worldly wise.


CHAPTER VII. THE HOME GUARD AND THE BUM

    47. City bum, twenty-three, in missions when broke, works
    as teamster, “got” religion once.

    48. Wife deserter, drinks, loiters on “stem,” odd jobs,
    formerly pig killer.

    49. Ex-pugilist, single, forty-five, now mission “stiff,”
    works on clocks in summer, alcoholic.

    50. Health ruined by drink, thirty-two, light jobs, baker,
    farms in summer, Chicago much of time.

    72. Crippled in industrial accident, sixty-two, family
    grown, would care for him, drinks.

    78. Classification of types of homeless men submitted by Mr.
    Wirth of Jewish charities.

    127. Classification of tramps, hobos, and other types of
    homeless men by Dr. Ben L. Reitman.


CHAPTER VIII. WORK

    73. Pioneer type, fifty, seldom comes East, miner,
    prospector, lumber jack.

    77. Man forced to be idle by hard times, learned to get
    along, later refused work.

    83. Old man, fifty, single, winters in Chicago, farm jobs
    in summer, drinks some.

    93. Laborer, migrant, forty-four, becoming radical on
    account of work shortage, had some money.

    94. Ex-soldier, twenty-seven, without funds but hopeful,
    hustling worker.

    96. Boy tramp, twenty, reformatory record, traveled much in
    three years.

    114. Brought cattle from Wyoming to Chicago, lost all with
    women and drink, still happy.

    134. _Study of Employment Agencies and Labor Placement
    Problems_, E. H. Koster, August, 1922.

    158. _The Unemployed and the Unemployable in Chicago_,
    Rupert R. Lewis, December, 1917.

    160. Statistics of the Chicago Free Employment offices for
    the year ending September 30, 1922.


CHAPTER IX. HEALTH

    106. Ex-soldier, released from army hospital, gets
    compensation, drinks much.

    107. Italian bricklayer, rheumatism, gets aid from union,
    family in Italy, sons in war.

    108. Mental case, talks to self, attracts much attention on
    street, loud and vulgar.

    117. Teamster, thirty-six, raised in slum, unemployable with
    locomotor ataxia, peddles pencils.

    121. Chicago boy, does not go home, needs medical attention
    for feet and eyes, gambles.

    122. Boy tramp, great wanderer, homosexual, intelligent, two
    years on road.

    139. Mortality statistics for Hobohemia for 1922,
    non-resident cases.

    147. Communication of Dr. Herman N. Bundesen, commissioner
    of public health, concerning the health and medical care of
    the homeless man in Chicago.


CHAPTER X. SEX LIFE

    51. Middle-aged woman, character on West Madison Street,
    feeds cats, scolds everyone.

    52. Street faker, aspires to be actor, jail experience,
    free-union experience.

    53. Boy tramp, going West, travels without difficulty but is
    often accosted by perverts.

    54. Homosexual case, boy involved, man died in jail while
    awaiting trial.

    55. Bum who works on docks and boats, involved in boy case,
    Bridewell for term.

    81. Four boys in Grant Park, each with jail and tramp
    experience.

    82. Case of boy in teens, tramp, “flirting” with men in
    Grant Park.

    87. _Cases of Venereal Disease Due to Homosexual
    Infection_, Dr. Ben L. Reitman.

    110. Boy tramp, nineteen, exploited by perverts, decidedly
    feeble-minded, on way home (Indiana).

    120. Young man, twenty-two, well dressed, homosexual
    prostitute, loafs in Grant Park.

    125. Observations upon the unnatural attachments of some
    homeless men and boys.

    141. Wife deserter, left home to enable her to divorce him.

    142. Statistics showing marital condition of homeless men.

    153. _The Sexual Life of Habitual Wanderers_, J. L.
    Handelman, August 22, 1919.


CHAPTER XI. CITIZENSHIP

    56. Case of a transient voter showing difficulty hobo has of
    voting.

    57. Hobo’s affair with police in Kansas, hobo bitter against
    police.

    58. University of Iowa student and police, fair observer,
    has been hobo, letter to writer.

    59. Recital of hobo and private police in Ohio, narrator has
    settled in Chicago.

    80. Report of visit to police court, hobos tried at rate of
    one a minute, August 28, 1922.

    85. _Report of Two Weeks’ Commitment to the Cook County
    Jail_, Nels Anderson, May, 1922.

    149. Case of police persecution.

    162. Newspaper clippings on the death of Martin Talbert in a
    Florida convict camp.


CHAPTER XII. HOBOHEMIAN PERSONALITIES

    22. Marxian socialist, soap-boxer, dogmatic and undiplomatic,
    would educate “slaves.”

    25. Dreamer, poet, migrant, critic, very changeable, good
    family, single, ex-soldier.

    75. Pamphlet on Mike Walsh published by himself, states his
    policies and achievements.

    126. Character sketch of J. E. How, “Millionaire Hobo,”
    also correspondence with Nels Anderson.


CHAPTER XIII. THE INTELLECTUAL LIFE OF THE HOBO

    23. Tries to write saleable songs and novels, sober but
    gambles, single.

    116. Leader in hobo organization, writes for _Hobo News_,
    carries I.W.W. card.

    119. Hobo philosopher, carries bundle, sells pamphlets about
    self, sleeps in parks.

    129. Thirty-one copies of the _Hobo News_ containing various
    types of hobo literature.

    150. Manuscript on “What the Hobo Reads,” Daniel Horsley.


CHAPTER XIV. HOBO SONGS AND BALLADS

    130. Collection of hobo songs and poems made by Nels
    Anderson, forty-one selections.


CHAPTER XV. THE SOAP BOX AND THE OPEN FORUM

    21. Soap-boxer, scientific bent, takes self and message
    seriously, calls it “education.”

    24. Single-tax advocate, about fifty, living away from
    family, sells Ford’s _Weekly_.

    60. Notes on an afternoon’s series of talks on the soap box
    on Madison Street.

    138. Debate, “Hobo College” v. students from the University
    of Chicago, “Kansas Industrial Courts,” April 12, 1923.

    140. _Study of “Hobo College” in Chicago_, Charles W. Allen
    (teacher at college), 1923.


CHAPTER XVI. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS

    61. Co-operative movements among hobos, experiences of John
    X. Kelly, now in Chicago.

    74. Financial statement of the I.W.W., May and June, 1922.

    84. Conversation with an I.W.W. who was once a steady
    migratory worker, old soldier.


CHAPTER XVII. MISSIONS AND WELFARE AGENCIES

    62. “Visit to Bible Rescue Mission,” Nels Anderson’s
    experience, spring, 1922.

    63. _Salvation Army Revival_, Sherman O. Cooper.

    64. Case of “X” at the Bible Rescue Mission, bears public
    testimony to former badness.

    65. Ex-bum and wife deserter, graduate foreign university,
    steady man now.

    66. Mission worker, “saved” twenty years ago, was alcoholic
    and a failure, in business now.

    67. German, Madison Street bum, came into mission to get
    warm, got religion, left old life.

    68. Ex-drunkard, often thrown out of mission, finally got
    converted and is a new man.

    69. Young man, mission “stiff,” easily converted, became a
    “backslider” next day.

    71. Wife deserter, mission hanger-on, clean, erect, active
    but avoids work.

    99. Letter by Bill Quirke to _Hobo News_ on missions in Los
    Angeles. He assails missions.

    118. Ex-soldier in Legion headquarters, trying to get job
    on strength of army experience.

    143. _Study of Missions and Mission Characters_, L. G.
    Brown, 1923.

    156. _A Study of Missions_, H. D. Wolf, August, 1922.


APPENDIX A. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

    128. Unpublished materials by Nels Anderson, covering his
    study of 400 tramps, 230 typewritten pages.

    144. _Study of 110 Runaway Boys in Chicago Detention Home_,
    F. C. Frey and B. W. Bridgman, 1922.

    148. “Outline of Program for the Prevention and Treatment
    of Vagrancy,” prepared by the Committee on Relief of the
    Chicago Council of Social Agencies, and submitted to the
    Executive Committee of the Council, June 13, 1918.

    154. Responses to requests for information on the homeless
    man problem from social agencies in the larger American
    cities.




APPENDIX C

BIBLIOGRAPHY


HISTORY AND SOCIOLOGY OF WANDERLUST AND VAGRANCY

    AYDELOTTE, FRANK, _Elizabethan Rogues and Vagabonds_
    (“Oxford Historical and Literary Studies”). Oxford:
    Clarendon Press, 1913. Pp. 187.

    FLORIAN, EUGENIO, _I Vagabondi Studio
    Sociologico-guiridico, Parte prima, L’Evoluzione del
    Vagabondaggio_. Torino, 1897. Pp. 1-124.

    HUTTEN, JOHN CAMDEN, _The Book of Vagabonds and Beggars_.
    Translated and printed in England by Hutton, 1860.

    JOFFROY AND DUPOUY, _Fugues et Vagabondage_. Paris: Alcan,
    1909. Pp. 368.

    MARIE, A. A., AND MEUNIER, R., _Les Vagabonds_. Paris: Giard
    and Brière, 1908. Pp. 331.

    MARIET, “Le vagabondage constitutionnel des dégénéres”
    (continued article), _Annales medicopsychologique_, 1911-12.

    MAYHEW, HENRY, _London Labour and the London Poor_. London:
    Griffin, 1862. Pp. 504.

    PAGNIER, ARMAND, _Du Vagabondage et des Vagabonds, Étude
    Psychologique, Sociologique et Medico-legale_. Lyons,
    France: 1906.

    PARKER, CARLTON H., _The Casual Laborer_. New York:
    Harcourt, Brace & Howe, 1920. Pp. 199.

    RIBTON-TURNER, CHARLES J., _A History of Vagrants and
    Vagrancy and Beggars and Begging_. London: 1887. Pp. 720.

    SPEEK, PETER A., “The Psychology of the Floating Workers,”
    _Annals of the Amer. Acad. of Pol. and Soc. Science_
    (Philadelphia), LXIX, 72-78.

    TANNENBAUM, FRANK, _The Labor Movement_. New York: Putnam,
    1921. Pp. 259.

    THANET, OCTAVE, “The Tramp in Four Centuries,” _Lippincotts_,
    XXIII (May, 1879), 565.

    TUGWELL, REXFORD G., “The Gypsy Strain,” _Pacific Monthly
    Review_, III, 177-96.

    WILMANNS, KARL, _Zur Psychopathologie des Landstreichers_.
    Leipzig: Barth, 1906. Pp. 418.

    WILMANNS, KARL, “Psychoses among Tramps,” _Centralblatt für
    Nervenheilkunde_, December, 1902.


THE LABOR MARKET AND INDUSTRIAL MOBILITY

    BAKER, OLIVER E., _Seed Time and Harvest_, _Bull. United
    States Dept. of Agric., No. 183_, March, 1922.

    BRISSENDEN, PAUL F., “Measurement of Labor Mobility,” _Jour.
    of Pol. Econ._, XXVIII (June, 1920), 441-76.

    BRISSENDEN, PAUL F., AND FRANKEL, EMIL, “Mobility of
    Industrial Labor,” _Pol. Science Quar._, XXXV (December,
    1920), 566-600.

    DEVINE, EDWARD T., “The Shiftless and Floating City
    Population,” _Annals of the American Academy of Soc. and
    Pol. Science_, X (September, 1897), 149-64.

    FRY, LUTHER C., “Migratory Workers of Our Industries,”
    _World’s Work_, XL (October, 1920), 600.

    Immigration Commission, Reports of, _The Floating Immigrant
    Labor Supply_ (_Immigrants in Industry_), 25 parts, XVIII,
    331-525. Senate Reports, Washington, 1911.

    LESCOHIER, DON D., _The Harvest Worker_, _Bull. United
    States Dept. of Labor, No. 1020_, April, 1922.

    LESCOHIER, DON D., _The Labor Market_. New York: Macmillan,
    1919. Pp. 338.

    SLICHTER, SAMUEL H., _Turnover of Factory Labor_. New York:
    Appleton, 1919. Pp. 460.


THE PROBLEM OF UNEMPLOYMENT AND VAGRANCY

    BEVERIDGE, W. H., _Unemployment: A Problem of Industry_.
    London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1909. Pp. 317.

    BLISS, W. D. P., _What Is Done for the Unemployed in
    European Countries_. _United States Labor Bull. No. 76_
    (1908), pp. 741-934.

    BOOTH, WILLIAM, _The Vagrant and the Unemployable_. London:
    1909. Pp. 79.

    DAWSON, W. H., _The Vagrancy Problem_. London: P. S. King &
    Son, 1910. Pp. 270.

    HUNTER, ROBERT, _Property_. New York: Macmillan, 1912. Pp.
    380.

    KELLY, EDMOND, _The Elimination of the Tramp_. New York:
    Putnam & Sons, 1908. Pp. 111.

    Laws of Various States Relating to Vagrancy.

    LAUBACH, FRANK C., _Why There Are Vagrants_. New York:
    University of Columbia Press, 1916. Pp. 128.

    LEWIS, BURDETTE G., _The Offender, and His Relations to Law
    and Society_. New York: Harper, 1921. Pp. 380.

    LEWIS, O. F., “Vagrancy in the United States,” _Proceedings
    of the National Conference of Charities and Corrections_
    (1907), pp. 52-70.

    MARSH, BENJAMIN C., “Causes of Vagrancy and Methods of
    Eradication,” _Annals of the Amer. Acad. of Pol. and Soc.
    Science_, Vol. XXIII, No. 3, pp. 445-56. Philadelphia: 1904.

    Massachusetts Association of Relief Officers, _Report on
    Best Methods of Dealing with Tramps and Wayfarers_, 1901.

    “The Men We Lodge,” _Report of the Advisory Social Service
    Committee of the Municipal Lodging House_. New York City:
    Dept, of Public Charities, 1915. Pp. 42.

    NICHOLS, MALCOLM, “National Aspects of the Transient
    Problem,” _The Family_, III (June, 1922), 89-91.

    OSTWALD, HANS OTTO, _Die Bekämpfung der Landstreicherei_.
    Stuttgart: R. Lutz, 1903. Pp. 278.

    _Report of the Commissioner of Public Affairs._ Portland,
    Ore.: Wood Yard, 1915.

    _Report of the Mayors Committee on Unemployment._ New York
    City: 1917. Pp. 132.

    WOLFE, ALBERT B., _The Lodging Problem in Boston_. Boston:
    Houghton Mifflin, 1906. Pp. 200.


THE I.W.W. AND THE CASUAL LABORER

    BROOKS, JOHN GRAHAM, _American Syndicalism_. New York:
    Macmillan, 1913. Pp. 264.

    BRISSENDEN, PAUL F., _The I.W.W.: A Study of American
    Syndicalism_. New York: University of Columbia, 1920. Pp.
    438.

    HOXIE, R. F., “The Truth about the I.W.W.,” _Jour. of Pol.
    Econ._, XXI (November, 1913), 785-97.

    _I.W.W. Song Book._ Chicago: The Equity Press, 1922.

    _Preamble and Constitution of the I.W.W._ Chicago: General
    I.W.W. Headquarters, 1921. Pp. 69.

    ST. JOHN, VINCENT, _The I.W.W., Its History, Structure and
    Methods_. Chicago: The Equity Press.

    TRIDON, ANDRÉ, _The New Unionism_. New York: Huebsch, 1913.
    Pp. 198.


MATERIALS FOR THE STUDY OF THE HOBO AND THE TRAMP

    BROWN, EDWIN A., _“Broke,” the Man without a Dime_. Chicago:
    Brown & Howell, 1913. Pp. 370.

    DAVIES, WILLIAM H., _Autobiography of a Super-Tramp_. New
    York: A. A. Knopf, 1917. Pp. 345.

    ELLIS, HAVELOCK, _Studies in the Psychology of Sex: Sex
    Inversion_. II, 391. Philadelphia: Davis, 1915.

    FORBES, JAMES, “Jockers and the Schools They Keep,”
    _Charities Survey_, XI (1903), 432.

    FLYNT (WILLARD), JOSIAH, _My Life_. New York: Outing
    Publishing Co., 1908.

    FLYNT (WILLARD), JOSIAH, _Tramping with Tramps_. New York:
    Century, 1899. Pp. 398.

    HOWARD, OLIVER OTIS (Maj. Gen., U.S. Army), “The Menace of
    Coxyism,” _North Amer. Rev._, CLVIII (1894), 687-96.

    KEMP, HARRY, _The Cry of Youth_. New York: Mitchell,
    Kennerley, 1914. Pp. 140.

    KEMP, HARRY, _Tramping on Life_. New York: Boni &
    Liveright, 1922. Pp. 438.

    KNIBBS, H. H., _Songs of the Outlands_. New York: Houghton,
    Mifflin Co., 1914. Pp. 73.

    LINDSAY, VACHEL, _Handy Book for Beggars_. New York:
    Macmillan, 1916. Pp. 205.

    LONDON, JACK, _The Road_. New York: Macmillan, 1907. Pp.
    224.

    LONDON, JACK, _War on the Classes_. New York: Macmillan,
    1905. Pp. 278.

    MCCOOK, J. J., “A Census of Tramps and Its Revelations,”
    _Forum_, XV, 753.

    MCGREGOR, TRACY W., _Twenty Thousand Men_. Detroit:
    McGregor Institute, 1922. Pp. 29.

    MULLIN, GLEN, “Adventures of a Scholar Tramp,” _Century
    Magazine_, Vol. CV (February and March).

    SERVICE, ROBERT W., _The Spell of the Yukons_. New York:
    Barse & Hopkins, 1907. Pp. 99.

    WYCKOFF, W. A., _The Workers: The East_. New York:
    Scribners, 1897. Pp. 270.

    WYCKOFF, W. A., _The Workers: The West_. New York:
    Scribners, 1898. Pp. 380.


STUDIES OF THE HOMELESS MAN IN CHICAGO

    ANDERSON, NELS, “Cases Studies of Homeless Men in Chicago”
    (typewritten manuscript in office of Chicago Council of
    Social Agencies and Department of Sociology, University of
    Chicago).

    ANDERSON, NELS, “The Juvenile and the Tramp,” _Journal of
    Criminal Law and Criminology_, Vol. XIV (1923-24).

    “The Chicago Municipal Lodging House for Men,” in the
    _Report and Handbook of the Department of Health of the
    City of Chicago_ (1911-18), pp. 1076-81.

    “Fifty Cheap Lodging Houses,” _First Semi-Annual Report of
    the Department of Public Welfare of Chicago_ (March, 1915),
    pp. 66-73.

    FOLEY, R. W., “The Shifting Population of Homeless Men
    and the Cheap Lodging House” (typewritten manuscript of
    twenty-nine pages in Department of Sociology, University of
    Chicago).

    _Report to the Mayor and Alderman by the Chicago Municipal
    Markets Commission on a Practical Program for Relieving
    Destitution and Unemployment in the City of Chicago_,
    December 28, 1914.

    ROBINS, RAYMOND, “What Constitutes a Model Municipal
    Lodging House,” _Proceedings of the National Conference of
    Charities and Correction_ (1904), pp. 155-66.

    SOLENBERGER, ALICE W., _One Thousand Homeless Men_. New
    York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1911. Pp. 374.

    STEAD, WILLIAM T., _If Christ Should Come to Chicago_[74]
    Chicago: Laird & Lee, 1894. Pp. 463.


FOOTNOTES:

[74] The first chapter describes the homeless-man areas of 1893.




INDEX




INDEX


  “A No. 1,” 100

  Adler, Herman M., 73

  Agencies, conflicting policies of, 15

  Alcoholism, 66, 67, 134-35

  American Express, 166

  American Legion, 260

  Ashleigh, Charles, 205

  Association of hobo with women, 138

  Associations: I.B.W.A., 230, 235-40;
    I.W.W., 230-35;
    J.P.A., ix;
    M.W.U., 230

  Atkins, Brigadier J. E., 171, 180-81

  Attitude of perverts, 148


  Ball, Charles B., 260

  Ballot, hobo regard for, 153

  Barber colleges, 37-38

  Barrel-house, 27

  Begging, 47, 49, 50

  Bills of fare on “stem,” 34

  Bloch, Iwan, 144

  Boarding companies, 130-31

  Bookstore, 38

  Borrowing, 49

  Boy tramp, and perversion, 145;
    and wanderlust, 83

  Boyd, Charles J., 120

  Boys and tramp life, 85

  Bread lines, 258

  Brennan, Pat, 208

  “Bughouse Square,” 9-10

  Bum, the, 98


  “Carrying the banner,” 53

  Catholic charities, 259

  Christian Industrial League, 27-28, 260

  Chicago, a winter shelter, 12-13

  Chicago labor exchange, 12, 110

  Chicago plan for homeless men, 271-79

  Chicago Urban League, 259

  Civil authorities and tramp, 163-64

  Clearing house for homeless men, 122, 136

  Clothing stores, 35-36

  “Coffee-an’” level, 40

  Cooking in jungles, 22-23

  College,” “Hobo, 172, 173, 174, 175, 177, 227, 237

  Construction work, 107

  Court experience of hobo, 165-66

  Criminal, hobos not, 164-65

  Crises in life of person, 77-79

  Crop moving, 107

  Cubicles or “cages,” 30


  Dawes, General C. G., 28

  Day in the jungles, 21-25

  Dragstedt, A. W., 25 n., 171, 177-78, 212

  Drug addicts, 67-68;
    not hobos, 69


  Educating the proletariat, 219

  Egocentricity, 74-76

  Ellis, Havelock, 144

  Employment agencies, comparison of, 115-17;
    private, 111-12;
    public, 114-16

  Employment service, need of, 122

  Evangelists and soap-boxers, 217


  Faking, street, 43

  Farmer-Labor Party, 152

  Flops, co-operative, 238-39

  Flynt, Josiah, 94, 146

  Fortune-tellers, 39

  “Free-lance” speakers, 216, 218

  Free-union marriages, 141-42


  “Getting by,” a game, 57;
    meaning of, 40-41

  Giovannitti, Arturo, 201

  Grafts, old and new, 44

  Grant Park, in summer, 11

  Greenstein, “Mother” 139, 171, 183-84


  Handicapped men, 125-28

  Harvey-Dammarell hotels, 28-29

  Harvey-McGuire hotels, 28

  “Hat trick,” the, 45-46

  Hazards of casual work, 129

  Health Department, 131, 132, 133

  Healy, William, 70

  Hill, Joe, 208, 209

  Hobo, definition of, 87-89;
    and drink, 135;
    and exposure, 136;
    health in town, 131-33;
    hostility to in small town, 26;
    names for, 93;
    nativity of, 150-51;
    origin of, 88;
    pioneer, and frontiersman, 92;
    poor beggar, 49;
    and religion, 262;
    status of, 167;
    voting, 151-52;
    what he reads, 187-89;
    worker, 91

  Hobohemia, defined, 3

  “Hogan’s Flop,” 31-33

  Home, why men leave, 61 ff.

  Home guard, 96-97;
    types of, 100-101

  Homeless men, and the law, 154;
    mostly unmarried, 137

  Horsley, Dan, 171, 175-77

  Housing problem, 39

  How, James Eads, 88, 172, 174, 175, 239


  I.B.W.A., 230, 235-40;
    Holding Committee, 237-38;
    origin of, 235-36;
    program of, 236-37

  Industrial attractions, 62;
    fishing, 107;
    ice harvesting, 108;
    lumbering, 108;
    sheep-shearing, 107-8

  Industrially inadequate, 65

  Industry, changes in, 62-63;
    hazards of, 65-66

  I.W.W., 230-35;
    literature list, 187-88;
    methods and appeal, 232-34;
    origin of, 230;
    periodicals, 191;
    program, 231;
    treatment in Chicago, 235;
    treatment by Ku Klux Klan, 191


  “Jack rolling,” 5, 51-52

  Jewish Social Service Bureau, 259

  Job hunting, 109

  Jobs sold, estimate of, 111

  Jockers, 103

  Johnson, Glenn R., 72

  Jungle, buzzard, 103;
    a day in, 21-25;
    democracy in, 19;
    laws of, 20-21;
    location and types of, 16-17;
    on lake front, 10;
    trial in, 24-25;
    womanless, 18

  Juvenile Protective Association, ix


  Kelihor, T. T., 160

  Kelly, John X., 171, 173-74, 242, 243-46

  Kemp, Harry, 196, 199

  “Killing time,” 215-16

  Klein, Nicholas, 88

  Knibbs, H. H., 198


  Lady barbers, 38

  Langsman, Charles W., 171, 178-79

  Laubach, F. C., 126

  Leadership in Hobohemia, 184

  Lescohier, Don D., 119

  Library privileges, 185

  Life, loss of, 161-62

  Light work, 129

  Living, cheap in city, 13

  Lodging-houses, municipal, 127, 134, 260-61;
    quasi-charitable, 27-28;
    sanitary conditions of, 131-32;
    types of, 27


  Medical attention, free, 13;
    on the job, 130

  Melis, Lewis, 206

  Mental tests, 71-73

  Migratory Workers’ Union, 230, 240-41;
    aims and objects, 241, 247

  Miller, H. A., 82 n.

  Missions, 250-58;
    converts of, 253-54;
    competition between, 250;
    migratory national, 252;
    permanent local, 251;
    soliciting funds, 252;
    “wild cat,” 253

  Mission stiffs, 98, 103

  Mobility, complicates problem, 15;
    effects of, 120, 248-49;
    of handicapped men, 128

  “Mooching,” 50

  Movies and burlesque, 37

  Mullenbach, James, 260

  Municipal Lodging House (Chicago), 260-61;
    (New York), 127, 134

  Mushfaker, 99

  Myers, Dr. Johnston, 171, 181-83


  National program, 270

  Negro hobos, 8

  New York Central Railroad, 166

  _News, Hobo_, 177, 185, 186, 187, 192


  Odd jobs, in city, 41

  Old men, 69

  “One Big Union,” 231

  Open forums, 226-28

  Organizations among hobos, 230;
    failure of, 247-49


  “Panhandling,” 50

  Park, R. E., 82 n.

  Partnerships among hobos, 147

  Passing the hat, 223

  Patriotism, 151

  Pawn shops, 36

  Peddling on street, 42

  Personal degradation, 57, 65

  Personality, defects of, 72-76

  Perversion among tramps, 144-47

  Pintner and Toops, 71, 72 n.

  Poems and ballads, 194-214;
    “Away from Town,” 199-200;
    “Beaten Men,” 205;
    Bum,” “The, 201-2;
    Bum on the Rods and the Bum on the Plush,” “The, 202;
    Dishwasher,” “The, 201-2;
    Gila Monster Route,” “The, 194-96;
    “Harvest War Song,” 208;
    Hobo Knows,” “The, 203;
    Hobo’s Last Lament,” “The, 212;
    “Men That Don’t Fit In,” 204;
    “No Matter Where You Go,” 213-14;
    “Nothing to Do But Go,” 198-99;
    “One Day; Some Way,” 205;
    “Optimism,” 213;
    “Portland County Jail,” 211;
    Preacher and the Slave,” “The, 210;
    Slave Market,” “The, 206-7;
    Tramp,” “The, 209;
    Tramp Confession,” “The, 196-98;
    Wanderer,” “The, 206

  Police, encounters with hobos, 156-58;
    methods of, 155, 160, 164;
    private, 155;
    types of, 154-55

  Poorhouse, aversion of hobo to, 56;

  Population, turnover in Hobohemia, 13-14

  Program for future action, 279

  “Proletariat,” 176

  Property, destruction of, 161

  Prostitutes, “second raters,” 143

  Prostitution, 142-43

  Punk, 99, 103


  Queen, Stuart A., 26 n.


  Racial discrimination, 81

  Radical press, 186

  Raid on jungles, 23-24

  Railroad yards, 8

  Reitman, Ben L., 87, 102, 134 n., 143, 171, 172-73

  Religion, practical, 182;
    and love, 179;
    and work, 180

  Restaurants and lunchrooms, 33-35;
    sanitary conditions of, 35

  Robins, Raymond, 260

  Rountree, B. Seebohm, 64 n.


  Sabotage, 121

  Saloons, 38-39

  Salvation Army, 27-28, 250, 260

  Scissor Bill, 99

  Seasonal fluctuations, 63

  Seasonal workers, 89-90

  Second-hand clothing, 35-36

  Service, Robert W., 203

  Sex isolation of hobo, 144, 149

  Seymour, James, 200

  Short jobs, 118-19

  Sickness and disease, 133

  Soap-boxers, ethics and tactics of, 222-24;
    and opinion, 228-29;
    his rôle on stand, 229;
    versatility of, 224-26

  Social center for hobos, 11;
    in the jungles, 16, 26

  Solenberger, Alice W., 9 n., 71, 87, 125-26

  _Solidarity_, the _Industrial_, 190-91

  State farm colony, 277

  Stealing, petty, 51

  Street speaking, 216-20;
    lectures, 220

  Strike jobs, 120-21

  Summary and findings, 265-79


  Terman, L. M., 71 n.

  Testimonies of converts, 256

  Thornburn, Charles, 205

  Tramp, the, 93-95

  Tramping, a man’s game, 137

  Tucker, St. John, 87

  Tugwell, Rexford, 82

  Types, rendezvous of, 5, 7, 9;
    of homeless men, 105;
    numbers of each in Chicago, 105-6;
    of peddlers, 42-43


  Unemployables, 104

  Unemployment, 64-65

  United Charities, 259


  Vagrancy, explanation of, 85-86;
    in small towns, 163

  Van de Water, John, 171, 179-80

  Vaudeville, 37

  Venereal disease, 133-34


  Walsh, Michael C., 171, 174-75, 242

  Wanderlust, 82-83

  Welfare organizations, 259-60

  Westbrook, Warden Wesley, 165

  White, Henry A., 203

  Winter, “getting by” in, 52-53

  Women and homeless men, 138-42

  Work, a national problem, 121-22

  “Working the folks,” 46-47

  Writings of hobos, 188-90


  Younger hobos, 140-41


PRINTED IN THE U.S.A.




=TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE=


  Italic text is denoted by _underscores_.

  Bold text is denoted by =equal signs=.

  Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been
  corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within
  the text and consultation of external sources.

  Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the
  text, and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained.

  Some hyphens in words have been silently removed, some added, when
  a predominant preference was found in the original book.

  Pg 20: ‘jungles; “buzzing,” or’ replaced by ‘jungles; (3) “buzzing”
         or’.

  Pg 101: ‘carried bedding’ replaced by ‘Carried bedding’.

  Pg 130: ‘are often let to’ replaced by ‘are often left to’.

  Pg 134: ‘of veneral infection’ replaced by ‘of venereal infection’.

  Pg 143: ‘have become adepts in’ replaced by ‘have become adept in’.

  Pg 150: ‘and its mores.’ replaced by ‘and its mores?’.

  Pg 156: ‘can’t get someting’ replaced by ‘can’t get something’.

  Pg 216: ‘It oftens takes’ replaced by ‘It often takes’.

  Pg 224: ‘tricks of holding’ replaced by ‘tricks for holding’.

  Pg 282: ‘Family send him money’ replaced by ‘Family sends him
          money’.

  Pg 287: ‘carrys bundle’ replaced by ‘carries bundle’.

*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 67300 ***