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Title: The Assyrian and Hebrew Hymns of Praise

Author: Charles Gordon Cumming

Release Date: January 3, 2015 [EBook #47864]

Language: English

Character set encoding: UTF-8

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Copyright 1934
Columbia University Press

Reprinted with the permission of the original publisher

Manufactured in the United States of America

GRATEFULLY DEDICATED
TO
RICHARD J. H. GOTTHEIL

NOTE

Professor Cumming has chosen a most interesting subject upon which to write a comparison of “The Assyrian and the Hebrew Hymns of Praise.” He has spent a number of years developing his theme, and has produced a book which I commend heartily to the attention of scholars who are interested in this field. Of course, we do not possess all the hymns written by the Assyrian poets, nor have we all those produced by the old Hebrew songsters. But we certainly have sufficient to make it possible for us to form a just idea of their character and of their beauty.

Richard Gottheil

FOREWORD

It was the author’s original intention to add to this book a translation of all the important Assyrian hymns; for a bringing together of hymns now scattered through many books and periodicals would be a very real service to Old Testament scholarship. Such a task however calls for the knowledge and skill of the thoroughly competent Assyriologist. It is hoped that the list of texts and translations appended to this book may make it easier for any interested reader to locate and carry further the study of any particular hymn. In the case of the Hebrew psalms some slight confusion may be spared the reader if he recognizes that the numbering of the verses is that of the Hebrew text, which differs slightly in certain psalms from that of the English translations.

Charles Gordon Cumming

CONTENTS

THE HEBREW HYMNS OF PRAISE

I. Hebrew Psalms Which Are Not Hymns 3

II. Hebrew Sanctuary Hymns of Praise 18

III. Hebrew Eschatological Hymns 32

IV. Hebrew Nature Hymns 39

V. Hebrew Hymns in Praise of Sacred Institutions 44

THE ASSYRIAN HYMNS OF PRAISE

VI. Assyrian Hymnal Introductions to Prayers 53

VII. Assyrian Antiphonal Hymns 72

VIII. Assyrian Self-Laudations of the Gods 83

A COMPARISON OF THE ASSYRIAN AND THE HEBREW HYMNS

IX. The Literary Form of the Assyrian and the Hebrew Hymns 95

X. The Supreme God among the Gods 100

XI. The Supreme God in His Dwelling Place 108

XII. The Supreme God as Creator 120

XIII. The Supreme God as Wise, Powerful, Merciful 130

XIV. The Supreme God as King and Judge 146

XV. Conclusion 154

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Texts and Translations of Assyrian Hymns 161

Selected Bibliography 169

Indexes 171

Division I
THE HEBREW HYMNS OF PRAISE

Chapter I
HEBREW PSALMS WHICH ARE NOT HYMNS

The Book of Psalms is no longer to be regarded by Old Testament scholars as an isolated phenomenon. Similar religious poetry is found not only in the narrative and prophetic portions of the Old Testament, in the Apocrypha, and the New Testament, but also in the literatures of Egypt, Babylonia, Persia, India, and Greece. Indeed, wherever religion really develops beyond the primitive stage, it expresses itself in poetry and we get something comparable to the Hebrew psalms.

One primary fact, then, to be considered in the study of the Old Testament psalms is that they are only the surviving fragments of the religious poetry of a race; and that they have been preserved partly by reason of the literary merit that made it difficult for them to be forgotten, and partly by reason of the fact that they happened to be included in the song books of the sanctuaries. One must accordingly bear constantly in mind the larger literature of which they were a part, and employ to a legitimate degree the imagination, in order to rightly comprehend the life out of which the psalms have come, and to see in any true perspective the significance of the surviving psalms.

Furthermore, it is now to be clearly recognized that the careful philological study of words and sentences, and the further effort to determine the date and authorship of the psalms, while always indispensable, are yet inadequate methods of procedure. It is true that again and again fixing with philological accuracy the meaning of a word or clause is the clue to the understanding of a psalm, yet to arrive at any just appreciation of the psalms it is absolutely necessary to classify them scientifically on the basis of their similarities and dissimilarities, and so to arrange them in the species or groups into which they naturally fall. It is then possible to compare psalm with psalm within the species, fixing as nearly as possible the type and noting every variation from the type. In this way the eye of the reader is opened to the originality and literary beauty of particular 4 psalms, which originality and literary beauty are in turn the expression of the uniqueness and power of the psalmist’s spiritual experience.

It may also be suggested that another principle of investigation should prove fruitful, namely, an attempt to arrange the groups of psalms, and the individual psalms within the groups, according to the principle of development from the lower to the higher stages of religious experience. Of course opinions may and do differ as to what is highest in religion, but the student of religion may never cease in his effort to find the line of development and to determine the highest. Since then the psalms are almost exclusively religious literature, and since the supreme motive for studying them is to gain the more complete understanding of religion, it is necessary to arrange the psalms in ascending order, so that one can more readily appraise the worth of religion in them, and determine and properly appreciate that which is most precious.

Finally, a further source of enlightenment and a valuable standard of appraisal has been neglected, unless the Old Testament psalms in their respective groups are compared with the psalms of Egypt, Babylonia, Persia, India, and Greece. Many decades have passed since a succession of studies first pointed out striking similarities between the Hebrew and the Babylonian so-called penitential psalms. Recent commentaries on the psalms such as Staerks in 1911 and Kittels in 1916 have printed in the appendices a number of Egyptian and Babylonian psalms, but the comparative method has not yet been widely and thoroughly applied.

An immense amount of work yet remains to be done in comparative study of the religious poetry of the different literatures. Species must be compared with species; prayer of supplication with prayer of supplication; prayer of thanksgiving with prayer of thanksgiving; affirmation of faith with affirmation of faith; hymn of praise with hymn of praise, and teaching psalm with teaching psalm. Before Hebrew hymns of praise, however, can be properly studied, the relationship of the hymns to the other groups that make up Hebrew religious poesy ought to be understood. Consideration must first be given, therefore, to the different groups of psalms to be found in the Hebrew Psalter.

Psalms of Lamentation and Petition

It has been suggested that the psalms ought to be classified in groups, and that the groups ought to be arranged in an ascending order, according to the stage of religious development which they represent. Following this principle, one can quite properly place lowest the Psalms of Lamentation and Petition. The lament in such psalms describes the unhappy plight of the oppressed nation, the persecuted religious community, or the afflicted individual. The petition makes earnest appeal to Yahwe for deliverance. Frequently the petition is reinforced by rather naïve considerations, such as are calculated to persuade the Deity to action. Surely Yahwe ought to be concerned for the glory of his name! Why should the unbelievers say scoffingly, “Where is now your God?” Again what profit is there to Yahwe in the death of his followers? Assuredly the dead in Sheol do not praise him. Most commonly does the psalmist urge that he has long trusted Yahwe; that Yahwe is his only hope, and that therefore Yahwe can not fail him.

In addition to the lament and the petition—the two most characteristic features of this group—one generally finds the vow. If God will come to the help of the sufferer, he will in turn render some specified service to Yahwe. It may be an animal sacrifice at the sanctuary, or it may be such a spiritual sacrifice of praise and testimony as will turn sinners to Yahwe. Yet another common feature of this group is the protestation of confidence that Yahwe will most certainly deliver the suppliant. Frequently it is found near the end of the psalm, and so confident is the sufferer of deliverance that he commonly uses the perfect tense, as if his salvation were already effected.

Of the fifty Psalms of Lamentation in the Psalter, thirteen express the petition of the nation or the religious community for Yahwe’s deliverance. Psalms 79, 74, 44, 80, 83, 60, 137, and 129 lament the humiliation and suffering endured by the nation at the hands of foreign enemies; 85 and 126 recognize in general terms Israel’s affliction, and implore Yahwe’s mercy; while Psalms 10 and 123 lament the wrongs inflicted upon the pious of the land by the powerful and godless rich.

Of these Psalms 137, 129, 125, and 123 are distinctive both for originality and simplicity of expression and for sincerity and intensity of feeling. Psalm 137 recalls the wrongs and the insults received 6 at the hands of Babylonians and Edomites and calls for vengeance upon those nations. Psalm 129, in much the same spirit, remembers Israel’s manifold sufferings at the hands of many foes and petitions vindictively for revenge. On the other hand 125 recalls Yahwe’s goodness in restoring the nation from exile and pleads with confidence for a further manifestation of his favor; while in 123 the contempt of the rich and the proud causes the pious to look with humble and childlike confidence to the God of mercy.

Undoubtedly greater far than any of the preceding psalms is Psalm 90, which, transcending the limitations of the nation and the sect, laments the brevity and troubled nature of human life, and pleads for some knowledge of the plan of the eternal God, some permanency for human effort, some small measure of happiness in life’s brief day.

To this group of national prayers of lamentation and petition ought possibly to be added Psalm 67. There is here, to be sure, no lament, but verses 2 and 3 are a petition for the coming of Yahwe’s salvation to earth, and verses 4, 5, and 6 may also be understood as a petition for the establishment of divine government upon earth:

Verses 7 and 8 are then simply a positive expression of confidence that the prayer just uttered is to be answered and God’s supreme blessing received. The psalm is not then an eschatological hymn of praise, but rather an eschatological prayer.

Psalms 20 and 72 have distinctive positions in this group, since each offers up a petition in behalf of the king. In Psalm 20 the king had apparently presented his offerings and sacrifices at the sanctuary, and the priest prays, in verses 2-6 that God will remember the king’s sacrifices and grant him help in the day of trouble and all his hearts desires. Naturally, in the case of a king, the chief concern is that he should be victorious over his enemies whenever war should come. In verse 7 the priest, possibly informed by some sign that the sacrifice 7 had indeed been accepted by Yahwe, gives positive assurance that the prayer has been answered:

Verse 8 reaffirms faith in Yahwe as mightier than horse or chariot, while verse 9 again predicts victory over the enemy. The psalm concludes in verse 10, as it began, with a petition for the king.

Psalm 72 might be fitted into the coronation service, being then the prayer offered for a just and successful reign. This would mean translating the successive sentences of the psalm from verse 1 to verse 11 and from verse 15 to verse 17 as petitions. Thus verse 2 would be translated:

and other verses correspondingly. This psalm is then in no sense a psalm of lamentation, but it seems to be a psalm of petition in behalf of the king who is about to begin his reign.

The remaining thirty-seven Psalms of Lamentation, or almost one-fourth of the Psalter, arise out of the distress of the individual. The most common misfortune is sickness (Psalms 13, 6, 88, 70, 39, 77, and 102), accordingly the petition is that the afflicted one may be saved from death by Yahwe’s merciful power.

Together with sickness there is usually the bitter complaint against the wicked enemies (Psalms 3, 13, 70, 64, 140, 7, 55, and 109). It is of course altogether understandable that men should be alienated from a sick person, regarding him as justly smitten of God and afflicted, and that such men should in turn be regarded by the sick man as enemies. It is also possible that in some instances, as in Psalms 22 and 69, it may be a matter of religious persecution. On the other hand the language used in a number of psalms (13, 70, 64, 140, 7, 55, 57, 59, and 109) rather strongly suggests that the enemies are practicers of black magic, an art familiar to every land unilluminated by modern scientific knowledge.

Yet in a considerable number of these psalms it is Yahwe himself who has sent the affliction. When this is the case the psalmist may do either of two things: he may acknowledge his misfortune to be just 8 punishment for his sin, and accordingly petition for forgiveness and deliverance (Psalms 38, 88, 39, and 102); or he may affirm his innocence and demand deliverance as a matter of justice (Psalms 26, 7, 17, 59, and 71).

Of all the individual psalms of lamentation, unquestionably the three finest are 51, 42-43, and 130. Psalm 51 has but one single clause referring to physical distress! “that the bones which thou hast broken may rejoice,” and is remarkable for its profound consciousness of guilt, and its strong conviction that cleansing and regeneration and the righteous life can only be achieved by divine mercy and divine redemptive power. As for Psalms 42-43, there is expressed in language of haunting beauty, both an intense thirst for the presence of God, and the awakening realization of a something of superior worth in man that can only be satisfied by the experience of God. This would seem to be the road along which the Hebrew ultimately arrived at the consciousness of his own supreme worth and immortality. Yet possibly the rarest of these psalms both for simplicity of expression and depth of religious insight is 130. The psalmist, who “waits for God more than they who watch for the morning” has an amazingly profound consciousness of sin expressed in the words:

and likewise a sublime conception of God’s mercy:

Psalms of Testimony and Thanksgiving

Corresponding to the Psalms of Lamentation and Petition are the Psalms of Testimony and Thanksgiving. The afflicted community or individual which has, in answer to its petition to Yahwe, experienced deliverance is obligated to give public expression to its gratitude for Yahwe’s salvation. Such psalms may be expected to tell the story of the affliction, the appeal for divine help, and the deliverance. Furthermore it is altogether natural for any people with a national and a religious consciousness to look back through the years and the centuries and to give thanks for the favors manifested by Deity to 9 the fathers. Originally the first words of such psalms may well have been: “Give thanks to Yahwe” or “I will give thanks to Yahwe.”

It is best to begin with the individual psalms of thanksgiving, since the individual experience of affliction and deliverance recurs with little change from age to age, and the individual psalm of thanksgiving accordingly approximates more nearly than the national the original type. The individual psalms of thanksgiving in the Psalter are 116, 30, 32, 138, 66, 21, 18, 118, and 103.

Psalm 116 is the testimony of a man who has been sick unto death. In anguish and despair he prayed: “O Yahwe save my life.” Yahwe heard his prayer, restored him to health, and accordingly he is in the temple to pay his vows, to offer up his sacrifices of thanksgiving and to give his testimony in the presence of all Yahwe’s people.

Again Psalm 30 is the testimony of a man who had once been very prosperous, but who by the loss of Yahwe’s favor had been brought low. Near unto death, he cried unto Yahwe, pleading that his death could not profit the Deity since the dead in Sheol praise not God. Yahwe saved his life to the end that he might praise and give thanks to his God continually.

Psalm 32 is in form and content quite similar to the teaching or wisdom psalms. Here, however, the teaching is based on a personal experience of deliverance from sickness, and the teaching is itself a testimony of gratitude for recovery. In his distress this psalmist made confession of his sin. Yahwe forgave and healed him. Jonah 2:3-10 is likewise a psalm of thanksgiving. The afflicted one at the point of death made his prayer and his vow. That prayer came to Yahwe in his sanctuary and he was saved. Accordingly he offered to Yahwe the sacrifice of thanksgiving.

Psalms 138 and 66 do not state the nature of the deliverance for which they give thanks, but the author of 66 follows time honored custom by offering an actual animal sacrifice at the sanctuary in fulfillment of his vow. Psalms 18 and 118 express the gratitude of two national leaders for deliverance from great peril.

The difficulty of deciding with certainty to which group a number of psalms belong is illustrated by Psalm 21. Verses 2 and 8 are addressed to Yahwe and express the king’s devotion to his God, while verses 3-7 describe the goodness of Yahwe to the king. Yahwe had 10 bestowed upon him the crown, had given him length of days, and had maintained him in security and honor upon his throne. Verses 9-13 are addressed to the king, probably by the priest, and promise the king complete victory over his enemies. The concluding verse 14 addressed to Yahwe:

This verse has the form of a petition, but its formal language amounts to an ascription of praise. The psalm then does not in the main utter a petition, nor express faith in Deity, but is rather an expression of thanksgiving and may well have been originally used in the celebration of an anniversary of the king’s ascension to the throne.

The classic individual psalm of thanksgiving in the Psalter is 103. Though it is here an individual who calls upon his soul to bless Yahwe, yet there is little that is personal about the psalm, for the psalmist identifies himself with his fellow Israelites and for that matter with universal humanity. Also there is little to distinguish this psalm of thanksgiving from the hymn of praise. The psalmist does not refer in verses 3-5, nor anywhere else, to any single individual personal concrete experience of Jehovah’s salvation, and the psalm is not in that sense a psalm of testimony. Yet exhortation to “forget not all His benefits,” the mention at the very outset of the psalm of the healing of diseases; linking of this healing with the forgiveness of sin as in the psalms of lamentation; the enumeration of Yahwe’s gracious favors to man; all these are calculated to call forth gratitude, and it is actually as a psalm of thanksgiving that the readers of the Bible have always regarded it. Notable in the psalm is the conception of the all but limitless mercy of God; the comparison of God’s compassion to that of an earthly father’s, the emphasis upon the eternity of God in contrast to the frail mortality of man and the fact that God’s mercy is extended to successive generations of men.

The transition to the national psalms of thanksgiving is splendidly made by Psalm 107. This might perhaps be called a liturgical psalm of thanksgiving. Verses 1-3 are clearly introductory. There is the general call to thanksgiving in verse 1:

Then in verses 2 and 3 the call is directed especially to the representatives of the Diaspora who by divine mercy have returned from all lands to Zion. The service of thanksgiving proper falls into four parts. The author has selected the four most wonderful deliverances of which he has knowledge; the deliverance of travelers hopelessly lost in the great desert; the deliverance of men who for their rebellion against God had been fettered and cast into prison; the deliverance of the sick who for their iniquities had been brought to the gates of death; the deliverance of sailors from a terrible storm on the much-dreaded sea. We may suppose that processions representing each of these groups came forward in the temple, while their stories were being told—possibly by a soloist—after which the chorus summoned them to give thanks, adding to the refrain a couplet suitable to each group. The psalm concludes with a hymn of praise to the God who manifests his power both over nature and over the affairs of men.

The National Psalms of Thanksgiving in the Psalter are fewer in number than the individual and further removed from the original type. This may be because national escapes from peril are rarer and more difficult to celebrate; and as they become more remote in time, the few psalms of thanksgiving that have been written to celebrate those deliverances have less and less interest for the public, and correspondingly less suitability for public worship, and so are lost. In the Psalter we have in addition to Psalm 107, Psalms 124, 136, 114, 124, and 65. Of these Psalm 124 is the only one which could be supposed to have been composed to celebrate a recent deliverance. On the one hand the language is general and the figures of speech are familiar, but on the other hand there is a spontaneity, simplicity and power of expression that suggest a recent experience of escape from great peril. This is especially true of verse 7.

Likewise delightful for its originality of literary form is Psalm 114. It celebrates in poetic and dramatic language the triumphant crossing of the Red Sea and the Jordan. Obviously it is looking back at these events through the media of legend and myth, and verse 2 makes it clear that the poem can not be earlier than the division of the kingdom. Nevertheless the author is so thrilled by the stories 12 that have come down to him that his poem possesses amazing spontaneity and power.

In contrast with the two preceding poems, Psalms 136 and 105 are highly stereotyped. Every second line in 136 is the refrain: “For his mercy endureth forever” and the psalm was therefor probably written for public rendition. Both psalms deal with the theme so dear to the Hebrew heart, Yahwe’s gift to the fathers of the land of Canaan, and both retell something of the biblical story of the patriarchs, the deliverance from Egypt, and the conquest.

Psalm 65 seems to be essentially a psalm of harvest thanksgiving. It accompanies the payment of vows (verse 2). Verses 2-5 are introductory, announcing the presence of the worshipers at the sanctuary. Verses 6-9 express faith in the God of land and sea, while verses 10-14 accredit to him the increase of the fields and the flocks. The psalms of testimony and thanksgiving pass over naturally into the hymns of praise, but as the hymns form the chief object of this study their treatment is postponed until the next chapter.

Psalms of Faith

Out of the experience of affliction as expressed in the psalms of lamentation and petition, and out of the further experience of deliverance as expressed in the psalms of testimony and thanksgiving, develops a serene faith and confidence over against the perplexities, the perils, and the conflicts of life. One characteristic element in the Psalm of Lamentation and Petition is the affirmation of faith in Yahwe. That affirmation of faith gradually develops until it becomes the entire theme of the psalm. This development can be traced to some extent in the psalms themselves. It is well to begin with Psalm 9, for while it expresses predominatingly confidence, yet it petitions at some length for Yahwe’s help against Israel’s enemies. Psalm 27 makes a much stronger affirmation of faith in Yahwe and a correspondingly briefer petition for divine protection; while Psalms 4 and 16, expressing quiet confidence in Yahwe, have only the very briefest appeals for his assistance. Psalms 11, 62, 63, and 92 still recognize the presence of enemies, but all are confident that their wicked foes must perish, while the faithful will experience Yahwe’s blessing.

The classic expressions of faith in Yahwe, however, are Psalms 23, 13 131, 121, and 91. Psalm 23:1-4 conceives of God under the figure of a shepherd, who gives to his own food, drink, guidance, protection. With the thought of danger in verse 4 the psalmist apparently felt the need of a stronger figure of speech to express his perfect security and good fortune, so in verse 5 he conceives of God as his host. God is providing for him most generously and he is confident that he will be the happy guest of God for the rest of his days.

Psalm 131 is of rarest beauty in its simplicity. This psalmist is aware that there are problems which he cannot solve by reason, and which might be permitted to harass his soul. Not in presumptuous pride, but in sincere humility, he simply trusts Yahwe, with a mind as free from protest as that of a weaned child in its mother’s arms.

Psalm 121 and more especially Psalm 91 seem to be liturgical in character. In Psalm 121, verse 1, the psalmist recognizes his need of help and that the help must come from Deity. Many of his fellow countrymen had through the centuries uncritically sought help from the gods of the high places. This psalmist asks with intense yearning and earnestness whence his help is to come. In verse 2 he answers his own question:

It is perhaps a question whether verses 3-8 are a soliloquy, or whether they are addressed to the psalmist by the priest. In either case the psalmist has the assurance that Israel’s God, who neither slumbers nor sleeps, will keep him everywhere and at all times, secure from evil.

In Psalm 91, verses 1 and 2 state the general truth that the man who trusts God is happy:

The verses 3-13 bring to the psalmist the assurance, presumably from God’s spokesman, the priest, that Yahwe will keep him under his constant protection, and that he need fear no peril however great. Finally in verses 14-16 the assurance is confirmed by a divine oracle, 14 the voice of God, promising the psalmist deliverance from every trouble, long life and honor.

Among these psalms of faith ought certainly to be included Psalm 46. Although this psalm does not contemplate any present situation in life, it looks forward with confidence to the turmoil and conflict, that in the last days will precede Yahwe’s final victory and subsequent reign of righteousness and peace. The psalm is written, not from an individual but from a national point of view. Its motive is sounded forth in the refrain which occurs at verse 8 and verse 12, and which undoubtedly ought to be inserted after verse 4 to divide the psalm into three equal sections:

It may accordingly be described as a national eschatological psalm of faith.

The psalm opens with the strong profession of faith of verse 2:

Verses 3 and 4 introduce us to the dread and terrifying phenomena of the last days; yet are not the believers in Yahwe afraid:

The second division, verses 5-7, pictures the serenity of the new Jerusalem already enjoying what the old Jerusalem lacked, a river flowing through its midst, and protected by God in this great hour while the hostile nations rage without its walls. Finally the third division, verses 9-11, invites us to behold the evidence of the complete and final defeat of the enemies of God, the bows snapped, the spears broken, and the chariots burning up in fire. Also one is to hear the voice of God claiming forevermore his rightful and supreme sovereignty among the nations of the earth.

Unique among the psalms of confidence is Psalm 139. The psalmist marvels, in verses 1-6, at Yahwe’s complete knowledge of his earthly life; in verses 7-12, at the omnipresent power of Deity, from which there is no escape; in verses 14-16, at the divine wisdom manifested in the creation of the psalmist’s body and the complete determining of his life’s course, in verse 17 at the innumerable thoughts and purposes of God. Verses 19-22 descend to the commonplace in petitioning for the death of the wicked while the concluding verses 23-24 ask God that his heart be searched for the discovery of wrong and that he be divinely guided in the right way. It is perhaps possible to regard verses 1-18 as an expression of faith in Yahwe, introductory to the petitions 19-24 and so class the poem as a psalm of lamentation and petition, but the verses 1-18 seem to be relatively so much more important that it seems wiser to regard it as a psalm of faith.

Teaching or Wisdom Psalms

There is a natural line of development from the psalm of faith to what may perhaps be called teaching or wisdom psalms. The believing psalmist assumes that God is in complete control of all the circumstances of life, and is convinced that God will protect him from all evil and give him success. This assumption of faith then becomes for many the all important, fundamental law of life, and as such it must needs be taught to youth. Thus doubtless originated the wisdom psalms; of which we have in the Psalter 1, 112, 34, 78, 127, 128, 133, 125, 73, 37, 49.

Psalm 1 is a splendid type of the wisdom psalm, since it begins with the characteristic opening words: “Blessed is the man,” and then sets forth the qualities of the good man and claims for him success, while it asserts for the wicked certain condemnation and ruin. Psalms 112 and 34 are also characteristic wisdom psalms, confined however in the artificial limitations of alphabetical acrostics. Psalm 78 teaches the same lesson as to the secret of success from history, recalling how Yahwe had again and again punished disobedience and rewarded obedience until he finally rejected Ephraim and accepted Judah, and chose David to be his servant.

If there were in Israel wise men, such as the author of Ecclesiastes, who taught that all life was vanity, there were other wise men such 16 as the author of Psalm 127 who taught that while all human effort without God’s cooperation was vain, yet life with God’s cooperation was certain of happiness. God does give his help to man, and one of his very best gifts is children. Again 128 gives the assurance that he who walks in Yahwe’s ways will enjoy the fruits of his labor, and in happiness see his children and children’s children round about him. Psalm 133 pays simple and charming tribute to the joy of human fellowship.

The assertion that the righteous always prosper and that the wicked suffer misfortune was inevitably challenged by the sceptics and scorned by the scoffers, who mocked the believing psalmist in his distress saying: “Where is now your God?” It became necessary therefore to deal with this problem on the basis of the facts of life, and we get accordingly a somewhat different type of wisdom psalm. Psalm 125 testifies to the existence of this problem. Verses 1 and 2, to be sure, affirm the security of the righteous. Verse 3, however, attempts to justify the affirmation of the preceding verses by a rational argument. If the righteous were not certain to prosper in the world, why should men be righteous? Would not the righteous become wicked and the moral foundations of life crumble? The petition in verses 4 and 5 requesting Yahwe’s favor for the good and his punishment for the wicked, while properly no part of a teaching psalm, are further recognition that actually certain of the facts of life contradict the psalmist’s theory. Nevertheless, his own conviction is expressed in verse 1:

Psalm 73 is the teaching of one who wrestled with this same problem of the theodicy. Verse 1 is an assertion of his faith:

But verses 2-20 tell how nearly the psalmist came to losing that faith as he saw the wicked prosper, while he himself suffered misfortunes, and how he recovered his faith with the conviction that the prosperity of the wicked was but temporary and their ultimate doom certain. Verses 23-28 are accordingly an assertion of the psalmist’s devotion 17 to Yahwe as in a psalm of faith, but the main thesis of the psalm is stated in verse 1, and so may therefore be best grouped with the wisdom psalms.

Psalm 37 is composed in stanzas of four lines, the first letters of the first lines of the stanzas spelling out the alphabet. The author of the psalm is an old man who gives warning against fretting over the prosperity of the wicked, and who affirms on the basis of his long experience of life, that, while the prosperity of the wicked is short-lived, God never forsakes the righteous. The use of the acrostic form may itself be taken as evidence of this psalmist’s unquestioning belief in the above dogma.

The author of Psalm 49 has no certain promise of prosperity for the righteous, nor does he threaten the wicked with premature death, but he does smile at their fatuous confidence, since death must surely overtake them. Therefore he does not let their possession of wealth trouble him because it cannot be taken to Sheol. On the other hand there seems to be just a suggestion in verse 16 that God can relieve the pious from the grasp of death:

Chapter II
HEBREW SANCTUARY HYMNS OF PRAISE

The hymn of praise is very similar to the psalm of thanksgiving. Indeed it is sometimes difficult to decide in which category a psalm belongs, as in the case of Psalm 103. The fundamental difference is that the psalm of thanksgiving expresses gratitude while the hymn of praise expresses adoration. The psalm of thanksgiving testifies to that which has actually been experienced, the hymn of praise voices enthusiasm for the wisdom and power and goodness that are in God. The psalm of thanksgiving is thus in its nature subjective, conscious of what the psalmist has experienced, while the genuine hymn is objective, forgetting self in adoration of Deity.

The question of the nature of the hymn of praise is involved with the question of its origin. Praise did not in the beginning burst forth spontaneously from the human heart. Religion arose out of a consciousness of need, and a feeling that there was a power to meet that need. In Babylonia, as in India and elsewhere the hymn of praise is often but little more than an introduction to a petition. The singer tells the Deity that He is wise and then asks for wisdom; or strong and asks for strength, or rich and asks for material blessings. Praise is suspiciously close to flattery and far from disinterested. In Israel also it is believed that the Deity desires praise. There is no profit for Yahwe in the death of the psalmist, since the dead praise not Yahwe. But in Israel praise is not a mere preliminary to a petition. The Old Testament psalmist does not praise God and then ask for favors. Almost no hymns are found in the psalter followed by what can actually be called a petition. The Hebrew hymn of praise has passed beyond that stage of development. As the expression of faith in Deity in the psalm of lamentation developed into the independent psalm of faith, so the words of praise that once introduced the petition for help have developed into the independent hymn of praise. Nor is the Old Testament hymn of praise just an expression of gratitude for the divine favors received; with or without anticipation of favors to come. The hymn of praise is not a mere variant of the psalm of gratitude. 19 The hymn of praise has transcended the human experience of need and deliverance and forgets the self in adoration of Deity. Praise is an end in itself, desired of God, and necessary for the human spirit.

The first home of the hymn of praise, in the light of all that is known of the development of religion, must undoubtedly have been the sanctuary. This judgment is confirmed by the testimony of the Old Testament psalms:

Such pious Hebrews as the authors of Psalms 42-43 and 84 longed for the sanctuary because it was preëminently the place for worship and praise. Typical sanctuary hymns of praise are Psalms 150, 148, 147, 146, 145, 111, 135, 117, 113, 33, 115.

The external form of the hymn of praise is very simple. It is introduced by the call to praise, originally addressed by the priesthood of the sanctuary to the worshippers. The characteristic form of the call was: “Praise ye Yahwe,” “Hallelujah.” So Miriam called upon her Hebrew sisters to praise Yahwe when the victory had been gained at the Sea of Reeds over Pharaoh’s forces:

This call to praise was followed by the body of the hymn setting forth in participial phrases, adjectival clauses, or independent sentences 20 the reasons why men should praise Yahwe. Then the hymn was rounded out in good symmetrical form with the same concluding call to praise:—“Hallelujah.”

While the above is the standard form of the hymn, a few psalms repeat the call to praise at intervals throughout the psalm, creating somewhat the impression of a union of little hymns. Thus Psalm 147 is in three parts each introduced by a call to praise. Part I has the call to praise in verse 1, and the reasons for praise in verses 2-6. Part II has the call to praise in verse 7 and the reasons for praise in verses 8-11. Part III has the call to praise in verse 12 and the reasons for praise in verses 13-20. The whole hymn then concludes with “Hallelujah.” Likewise Psalm 148 is in two parts. Part I has the call to praise in verses 1-5a, and the reasons for praise in verse 5b and verse 6. Part II has the call to praise in verses 7-13a, and the reasons for praise in verses 13bc and 14abc. Again there is a concluding “Hallelujah.”

It is worth observing that in general the Old Testament hymn of praise speaks of Yahwe in the third person. Human being calls upon human being to praise Yahwe, and human being tells human being why Yahwe is worthy to be praised. Hymns which thus use the third person exclusively are Psalms 150, 149, 148, 147, 146, 134, 117, 113, 111, 100, 98, 96, 95, 47, 29, 24, 19:2-5b; 19:5c-7. Yahwe is addressed in the second person in the following verses: Psalm 135:13; Psalm 97:9; Psalm 99:3, 8; Psalm 115:1, 2; Psalm 93:2, 3, 5. The second and third persons are used in about equal degree in Psalm 68, 145, 194, while Psalms 8, 84, 67 use the second person exclusively. Now the use of the second person is of course characteristic of prayer. The fact therefore that in the standard Hebrew hymn of praise the third person is used, because Hebrew is calling upon his fellow Hebrew to Praise Yahwe, testifies rather powerfully to the social and democratic character of worship in Israel.

Taking up now the three divisions of the Hebrew hymn in order, it is to be noticed that the call to praise has undergone certain changes in the wording. While in the great majority of the hymns the call to praise is “Hallelujah” in Psalm 134 the call is: “Bless ye Yahwe”; and in Psalm 100 all the land is bidden: “Shout to Yahwe”; and in Psalm 33 the righteous are called upon to: “Rejoice in Yahwe.” Most 21 impressive perhaps of all the calls to praise is that of Psalm 29, where the summons is addressed to the residents of heaven:

Again, when it is an individual who sings his hymn of praise, he must either address deity in the first person, as in Psalm 145:1:

or he must call upon himself to praise Yahwe as in Psalm 146:1:

Still further variation from the standard form is found, when the call to praise takes the form of a petition to Yahwe, a petition however which is really an ascription of glory to him. This occurs very beautifully in Psalm 115:1:

So also in Psalms 67 and 68, the petitions of the opening verses are really that God will glorify his own name, and the petitions merge altogether naturally into the calls to praise that follow.

The calls to praise in the various hymns, however they vary, yet bear eloquent testimony to the enthusiasm which animated the Hebrew hymns. They were sung not only to the accompaniment of many musical instruments, but also with dancing. The singing was not limited to sanctuary choirs, but was participated in by the entire concourse of people. The call to praise goes out to those in the sanctuary Psalm 150:1; to priests, Levites, Israelites, proselytes Psalm 135:19ff; to Jerusalem Psalm 147:12; to all nations Psalm 117; to everything that hath breath Psalm 150:6; to all things animate and inanimate in heaven and earth Psalm 148.

The reasons given in the body of the hymns why men should praise Yahwe naturally vary somewhat. However one predominant reason is that God in wisdom and power created the entire physical universe as it was visible to the ancient Hebrew; the firmament with sun, moon and stars, and the waters above the firmament; the earth and 22 everything upon the earth, and the waters beneath the earth. It is Yahwe who causeth the winds to blow, and the lightnings to flash, and hail and snow and rain to fall upon the earth; it is Yahwe who causeth all vegetation to grow, and giveth increase to the flock, and sustaineth life in everything that breatheth. (Psalms 148:5-6; 147:4, 8, 15-18; 146:6; 135:6, 7; 115:15; 104:2-32; 68:10, and 29:3-10.)

A second almost equally prominent reason for praising Yahwe is for his wisdom, might, and goodness revealed in his dealings with Israel. He had chosen the race for his own, had redeemed it from the power of Egypt, had revealed unto it his will in laws, statutes and commandments, had led it safely through the great desert, and had given it possession of the land of Canaan. (Psalms 148:14; 147:2,13,20; 135:4,9-12; 33:12.) It is noteworthy that little attention is given to the return from exile, partly, perhaps, because it may have been easier to see the hand of God in remote history, and partly because the return from Babylon and the subsequent history were not themes to create hymnal enthusiasm. On the other hand Israel did, as it will appear, look toward the future for Yahwe’s final and most glorious participation in human affairs.

A third potent reason for praising Yahwe is because of his merciful help extended to the weak and lowly on the earth, the widow, the orphan and the stranger, the oppressed and the troubled. Especially is he to be praised, because he saves the righteous and destroys the wicked. (Psalms 147:3; 146:7-9; 145:14, 18-20; 113:6-9; 103:13; 33:18-20; 68:6.)

Again the psalmist praises Yahwe for what he is in himself. His greatness is unsearchable. He is high above all Gods. His understanding is infinite. He is gracious and full of compassion. He is righteous in all his ways and holy in all his works. He is good, his mercy is everlasting and his faithfulness is extended to generation after generation. His name is holy and to be revered. (Psalms 150:2; 147:5; 146:7-9; 135:3, 5; 113:4; 111:4, 9; 100:5.)

Yet another reason for praising Yahwe is that he stands in such contrast to the gold and silver idols of the nations, which are the work of men’s hands, and powerless to see or hear or help. (Psalms 135:15-17; 115:4-8.) Likewise Yahwe is an infinitely more reliable 23 and potent source of help than the mortal human prince who goeth so soon to the grave and whose thoughts and plans then perish forever. (Psalm 146:3, 4.)

As the hymns in praise of Yahwe quite fittingly begin with Hallelujah “Praise ye Yahwe,” so also the great majority of them come to a conclusion with “Hallelujah.” (Psalms 150, 149, 148, 147, 146, 135, 117, 115, 113, 104.) There are a few hymns which have not the Hallelujah at the close (Psalms 29, 33, 111, 145), but these are not typical hymns. Psalms 29 and 33 do not use “Hallelujah” in the opening call to praise, while 111 and 145 are individual and alphabetical hymns of praise, in which “Hallelujah” could not well be made an integral part of the hymn. On the other hand a number of hymns have a longer and stronger concluding call to praise than the simple “Hallelujah”:

Such in general is the sanctuary hymn of praise, but each of the hymns in this group (Psalms 150, 148, 147, 135, 113, 145, 111, 146, 115, 33, 117) merits or demands at least brief individual mention. Of all these Psalm 150 deserves to be mentioned first because its position at the end of the psalter may be accepted as strong testimony of the great importance attached to praise in the worship of Israel. The 24 psalm also merits consideration for its own sake because of the clarity and symmetry of its arrangement:

Call to praise Yahwe (verse 1a); where praise Yahwe (verse 1bc); wherefore praise Yahwe (verse 2); wherewith praise Yahwe (verses 3, 4, 5); concluding call to praise Yahwe (verse 6).

Psalm 148 is particularly notable for the universality of its call to praise. Verses 1-5 call upon everybody and everything in the heavens above to praise Yahwe, while verses 7-13 call to his praise everything and everybody on the earth beneath including:

After the tremendous universality of this call to praise, the brevity of the body of the hymn, with the reference to Yahwe’s supreme glory on the one hand, and the reference to his goodness to Israel on the other hand, is very effective:

Psalm 147 is a splendid example of the union of three little hymns in one composition. The absence of a concluding call to praise is surprising; it has doubtless been lost in process of transmission.

Psalm 135 has a number of little variations from the ordinary usage of the hymns. Verses 1 and 2 are a typical call to praise:

But then verses 3 and 4 are two little hymns in themselves:

With verse 5 one would expect a renewed call to praise, as for example:

but instead of the call to praise there is substituted an affirmation of faith:

Verses 6-12 proceed in normal course reciting the greatness of Yahwe in creation and in history, but verse 13 contains its surprise, for the third person is exchanged for the second and Yahwe is directly addressed:

The second person is the natural usage of prayer, and the subject of verse 14 would have been appropriate for petition:

Possibly this very fact accounts for the use of the second person in verse 13. The thought of rescue naturally suggests the idea of the idol worship of the oppressors (verses 15-18), and the contrast between the impotent idols and Yahwe lends enthusiasm to the mighty concluding call to praise (verses 19-21).

In this group of sanctuary hymns, Psalm 113 undoubtedly deserves a unique place. The call to praise is distinctive both for its sublimity of conception and the beauty of the language:

However the rarest beauty and chiefest charm of this hymn is in the unexpected contrast between the Yahwe exalted high above all nations and Yahwe stooping from on high to the poorest and weakest of the earth. There is here a beautiful illustration of the characteristic Hebrew tendency to make truth concrete, in the case of the childless wife whom Yahwe remembers, and saves from being divorced, causing her to remain at home the joyful mother of children:

It is safe to say that no greater hymn of praise is to be found in the psalter than Psalm 100. It is great in its originality, clarity, and strength. It is addressed to the congregation entering the temple, and though not sung by the procession might yet be called a processional hymn. It is perhaps a question how wide the application of verse 1 is, whether the call to praise goes out to all the earth and all humanity, or whether the call is intended simply for all the land of Palestine. Verses 3 and 4 seem to make it reasonably clear that the call to praise is here meant not for humanity but for the Jewish people. The psalm is not then an eschatological hymn as the wider application of verse 1 might suggest. The hymn falls into two divisions of almost equal lengths, verses 1-3 and verses 4-5. In the first division verses 1 and 2 constitute the call to praise:

Verse 3 makes up the body of the hymn in this division, and it is to be noted that while the actual content of verse 3 is characteristic 27 reason for praise, yet the introduction of “Know ye” adds another to the succession of imperatives in this psalm, increases its strength, and is reminiscent of the fact that there were requirements for those who would enter Yahwe’s temple as Psalm 24:3-5 makes clear:

In the second division verse 4 is the call to praise:

and verse 5 the body of the hymn:

There is no further conclusion and assuredly none is needed.

Psalm 134 is a simple liturgical hymn of a night service in the Jerusalem temple. Some one representing the congregation standing without calls upon the priests in the sanctuary to lift up hands to the Holy of Holies and bless Yahwe (verses 1-2). The priests from within replying invoke Yahwe’s blessing upon the worshipper.

Another very beautiful liturgical hymn of praise is Psalm 24. Verses 1 and 2 are sung by the congregation approaching the sanctuary, and are hymnal in character. Arrived at the sanctuary the question is asked, who are worthy to enter Yahwe’s sanctuary (verse 3), and the answer is given in verses 4, 5. These three verses belong to the category of the teaching psalms. In verse 6 the congregation announces that it seeks the God of Jacob. However the temple doors are closed and the congregation demands that the gates be lifted up to permit the King of Glory to enter, verse 7. Verse 8 brings the challenge from within the temple: “Who is this king of glory?” and the answer is returned by the company without: “Yahwe strong and mighty, Yahwe mighty in battle.” Again the demand is made that the temple gates be lifted up (verse 9), but again the challenge comes from within: “Who is this king of glory?” And now the company returns the age-old title of the king, “Yahwe of hosts, he is the king of glory,” 28 and we are to understand that the gates did lift up, and that the mighty God passed in.

It is clear that this liturgical hymn is made up of what were once independent literary units. This is sufficiently obvious from the fact that in verse 6 the worshipping company are seeking the deity’s presence, as indeed is presupposed by verses 3-5, while in verses 7-10 the company is seeking entrance for Yahwe himself into the temple or more probably into the city. The whole constitutes a noble liturgical hymn of praise.

Psalms 111 and 145 have little claim to recognition other than that they are alphabetical psalms, the twenty-two lines of 111 beginning with the twenty-two successive letters of the Hebrew alphabet, while the first lines of the twenty-two couplets of Psalm 145 likewise begin with the twenty-two successive letters of the alphabet.

Psalm 146 opens in the characteristic style of an individual hymn of praise:

Then, however, there are three verses in the manner of wisdom literature, although introduced by verse 3 in the hortatory style of the prophet:

Verses 6-9 give the standard reasons why men should praise Yahwe, and verse 10 closes the hymn with that hopeful outlook for the future so significant, and so characteristic of the Hebrew religion and the Hebrew hymn of praise:

Psalm 115 varies so widely from the standard hymn of praise that it is just a question whether it belongs with the hymns, or with the psalms of petition. As previously pointed out, the introductory call to praise here takes on the form of a petition, fortified moreover as in prayers of petition with reasons why Yahwe should answer it.

What would ordinarily be the body of the first division of the hymn begins with verse 3 and runs on to verse 8 contrasting the God who is in the heavens and who has power to do whatever he wills with the impotent and useless idols of the nations (verses 3-8).

A new section clearly begins with verse 9. In a hymn proper verses 9-11 would constitute a renewed call to praise, but here they are a summons to Israelites, priests, proselytes to trust Yahwe:

There follows in verses 12-14 not reasons why Yahwe should be trusted, corresponding to the manner in which the body of a hymn gives reasons why Yahwe should be praised, but rather a strong affirmation of confidence, which again is a common feature of the prayer of petition.

Finally where in verses 16-18 would ordinarily be expected a renewed call to praise, we have here something that resembles the vow of a prayer of petition, although it is hymnal to the extent that it promises to praise Yahwe for evermore.

It ought also to be observed that the psalm has a number of features that indicate it to be liturgical in character. Verses 1-8, it may be supposed, were sung by the congregation made up of Israelites, and proselytes, led by priests and Levites. Then verses 9-11 constitute an antiphonal response to their petition, one choir singing: “O Israel, trust in Yahwe,” while the second choir responded: “He is their help and their shield.” The whole congregation that first sang verses 1-8 now sings verses 12-13, and in reply to their affirmation of faith, the temple choir gives the comforting assurance of Yahwe’s favor in verses 14-15. Then the congregation sings the hymnal vow of verses 16-18. It remains accordingly a question whether we have in Psalm 115 a liturgical hymn of praise, or a liturgical psalm of petition in which the hymnal spirit and form has a prominent place.

Psalm 33 is also difficult of classification. Verses 1-3 are a typical hymnal call to praise and verses 4-7 give customary reasons for praising Yahwe. Then verse 8 issues a renewed call to worship Yahwe and verses 9-11 again give customary reasons for so doing. But when we arrive at verse 12 we have the characteristic introduction to a wisdom psalm:

and there follow in verses 13-19 the sententious utterances, characteristic of the wisdom literature, teaching that neither men nor nations are saved by physical might, but only by the mercy of Yahwe extended to those who fear him. Not inappropriately there follows, in verses 20 and 21, an affirmation of faith in Yahwe, which is followed in turn by the brief petition:

The first half of the psalm, verses 1-11 is a hymn of praise; the second half, verses 12-22, despite the petition at the close is perhaps best called a wisdom psalm.

In the very short Psalm 117 the call to praise goes out in verse 1 to “all nations” and to “all peoples.” It is a question however whether the mercy of Yahwe in verse 2 is extended to all peoples or limited to the Hebrews. In any case this little hymn of praise forms a suitable transition to the special group of eschatological hymns of praise.

Chapter III
HEBREW ESCHATOLOGICAL HYMNS

The sanctuary hymns of praise which we have been studying have for, the most part, the backward look through Israel’s history to the creation of the world. A few of them also have in small degree the forward look calling for Yahwe’s praise because of what he will yet accomplish in the world; and certainly many of the hymns are characterized by an enthusiasm for Yahwe’s greatness that asserts or presupposes his supremacy in the universe. Nevertheless it is right to gather together a special group of hymns which look forward more definitely and concretely to the actual triumphant consummation of Yahwe’s plan, and the achievement of Israel’s glorious destiny. These hymns are sung in contemplation of Yahwe’s great final victory. He has at long last appeared to judge the world; his mightiest enemies have suffered complete and final defeat. He has taken his rightful position upon his throne, and all nations acknowledge his authority. The physical world will now yield its abundant increase, and the divine reign of peace and righteousness will begin. Such hymns, fittingly called eschatological, are Psalms 96, 98, 149, 47, 99, 97, 93, 82.

One not inconspicuous difference in these eschatological hymns is in the call to praise. Many eschatological hymns indeed seem to have been introduced simply by the triumphant shout: “Yahwe is king.” (Psalms 99, 97, 93.) The announcement of the momentous fact, that at last Israel’s God has actually ascended his throne to take to himself power and sovereignty over the earth, does of itself inspire hymnal enthusiasm. Quite probably the abruptness of the announcement corresponds to the suddenness and unexpectedness of the event itself. However hymns beginning with the shout: “Yahwe is king” sometimes follow up that announcement with a summons to praise Yahwe. Indeed the very fact that Yahwe has become king is reason why men and nations should be called upon to praise him. So while Psalm 93, beginning with “Yahwe is king,” has no further call to praise, Psalm 97 does complete the great announcement with a brief call to praise:

And Psalm 99 follows up the announcement not with one but with repeated calls to worship Yahwe (verses 1, 3, 5, 9).

Another group of eschatological hymns (Psalms 96, 98, 149) begins indeed with a call to praise, but feels the utter inadequacy of the old songs. The amazingly new world situation demands a new song. Consequently they start with:

They may later make explicit announcement that Yahwe has become king as in Psalm 96:10:

or that fact may be made implicitly understood by the general context of the hymn.

Undoubtedly there were also in Israel eschatological hymns, which issued the great call to praise in varied and impressive ways, following up the call to praise with the momentous announcement of Yahwe’s assumption of world government. Of such hymns Psalm 47 is a representative. It calls the peoples to the praise of Yahwe in verse 2 and announces the great fact of his newly accepted kingship in verse 3:

It was observed in the study of the sanctuary hymns that certain of them (147, 148) repeated the call to praise at intervals throughout the hymn, creating somewhat the impression of a union of little hymns in one. This phenomenon seems to be particularly conspicuous in the eschatological hymns. Thus Psalm 96 may be divided into three hymns: I, verses 1-6; II, verses 7-10; III, verses 11-13. So also Psalm 98 divides into: I, verses 1-3; II, verses 4-6a; III, verses 6b-9. Likewise 34 Psalm 99: I, verses 1-4; II, verses 5-8; III, verse 9. Psalm 47 breaks into two parts: I, verses 1-5; II, verses 6-9; and Psalm 149 likewise: I, verses 1-4; II, verses 5-9. In all these hymns the repeated calls to praise represent growing momentum and power of hymnal enthusiasm for Yahwe, the great king.

Turning from the introductions to the conclusions of the eschatological hymns we find that Psalm 149 is the only one of those found in the psalter that does actually end with, “Hallelujah.” Others, however (Psalms 97, 99, 96, 98), do end with the hymnal note of praise and all conclude with the note of triumph. In Psalm 149 it is Israel’s national triumph:

In Psalm 47 it is Yahwe’s great political triumph:

Psalms 96 and 98 close with the joyous anticipation that the reign of Justice is at hand:

It is interesting that three other psalms conclude with the thought of the holiness of Yahwe and Yahwe’s house:

In the study of the standard hymns of praise it was observed that Deity is regularly spoken of in the third person, while in only a very few instances the second person, the usage of prayer, is employed. Of the eschatological hymns we have examined there are four in which the second person occurs, Psalms 97, 99, 93, and 82. Psalm 97 is a hymn in three sections. The first section, verses 1-6, makes the announcement of Yahwe’s appearance on earth and the third person is used. The second section, verses 7-9, speaks of Yahwe’s supremacy over the gods, and where the psalmist is speaking of the joy of Jerusalem and Judah’s towns over Yahwe’s victory he uses the second person. But the third section, treating of Yahwe’s deliverance of the righteous again uses the third person. It is difficult to account for the use of the second person in the second section of this hymn, unless it is that the very thought of Judah’s joy over Yahwe’s triumph brought Yahwe nearer to the consciousness of the psalmist, and so put the psalmist into the attitude of mind of a suppliant toward Yahwe, with the consequent use of the second person, as in prayer.

Psalm 99 seems to be a hymn of four sections. The first section consists of verses 1, 2, 3, containing six lines ending with the refrain: “Holy is he.” The second section consists of verses 4 and 5 containing also six lines and ending likewise with the refrain: “Holy is he.” There is furthermore a natural line of division at the end of verse 7, and if we can suppose that the refrain was here inadvertently omitted, we should again have six lines ending with the same refrain. This leaves us in verses 8 and 9 a fourth section of six lines ending in the refrain slightly expanded: “For holy is Yahwe our God.” Moreover the hymn is divided into two main divisions of twelve lines each, each ending with a little hymn of three lines, which is substantially the same:

Again there is in this hymn the same difficulty in accounting for the use of the second person as in Psalm 97, and again the same explanation is to be offered. In verse 3a, to be sure, there may be a mistake in the text, for it is scarcely felicitous to have the second person in verse 3a and the third person in verse 3b. In verses 4 and 8 however, 36 the very subject matter is that which would ordinarily be followed by petitions, and which would bring about the attitude of the mind in prayer, and the consequent direct address to God:

Again Psalm 93 may be divided into four sections, though not all four of equal length. Verse 1, of three lines, makes the great announcement in the third person that Yahwe is king. Verses 2 and 3, of four lines, are addressed to Yahwe in the second person and inform him that his throne is from everlasting, but that mighty foes are in rebellion against him. Then verse 4, of three lines, makes the reassuring announcement in the third person that Yahwe is mightier than the foes. Verse 5 addresses Yahwe in the second person, expressing confidence that his divine authority will endure, and his house retain forever its sanctity. It seems not improbable that the verses employing the third person, and the verses employing the second persons were sung by different choirs, and that we have in this psalm a liturgical eschatological hymn.

The actual content of the eschatological hymns has to some extent been shadowed forth in this discussion. The one great fact in the hymns is the triumphant intervention of Yahwe in the affairs of the world. His appearance on the earth is accompanied by the most spectacular physical phenomena. The heavens declare his glory and the earth trembles. While clouds and darkness surround his person, his lightnings illuminate the world; the hills melt like wax beneath his feet, and a fire goeth before him and destroyeth his enemies (Psalm 97:2-6; Psalm 99:1). The appearance of Yahwe on the earth is followed by his complete and final victory. Turbulent and mighty as the waves of the great ocean, all his enemies are speedily vanquished. His right hand and his holy arm achieve for him the victory, and all the ends of the earth witness the salvation achieved by God (Psalm 98:1; Psalm 93:3, 4). In virtue of this great victory Yahwe is now to be feared above all gods; indeed he is recognized as the one 37 and only god. All those who had served graven images and boasted of their idols are put to shame. Yahwe reigns from his temple in Jerusalem, and the peoples of the earth bring their offerings into his courts, as they worship him, ascribing to him all glory and strength (Psalm 96:3, 4, 7, 8; Psalm 97:7). Yahwe’s sovereignty extends into the political realm. He who is great in Zion is high above all peoples. He is the great king over all the earth. His sovereignty means the extention of his favor to Israel, the rescue of his faithful servants from the might of wicked oppressors, and the elevation of the Hebrew race to power:

Indeed according to Psalm 149 it means the most complete and vindictive vengeance of Israel upon the nations (verses 6-9). However, in hymns broader and more generous of conception it means the establishment of a reign of righteousness and peace over all the earth, for which not only the peoples but the physical world itself will rejoice. The world is to be established so that it can not be moved. The earth will give her increase. Yahwe will bless his people and the very ends of the earth will fear him (Psalms 96:13; 98:9, 67; 82).

Unique in the group of eschatological hymns is Psalm 82. It has no call to praise, no summons to the Israelites, nor to the nations, nor to the physical universe, to rejoice at God’s appearing; it does not even announce that God has become king. What it does is to single out from all the momentous events of God’s final victory on earth one scene, but the description of that one scene is of itself such as to kindle hymnal enthusiasm and to give the psalm the atmosphere and character of a hymn.

God takes his place as judge in the council of the gods (verse 1). He arraigns the gods for their protection of the wicked, and exhorts them to do justice to the poor and the fatherless, and to rescue them from their oppressors. He realizes, however (verse 5), that appeal to these judges is hopeless. They are without understanding and in darkness, while the very moral foundations of the world tremble. Therefore God pronounces final judgment upon the judges. They had been given the status of gods but now they are to die like men (verses 6, 7). 38 This pronouncement, implying as it does that God will now himself give justice to the earth, calls forth the petition of verse 8:

Despite this anticipatory petition at the close, Psalm 82 is essentially a positive announcement of God’s triumph, and calling forth as it does hymnal enthusiasm, is itself essentially a hymn.

Similarly Psalm 2 must be assigned to the group of eschatological hymns. Here again there is no call to praise, no summoning of the nations to welcome God’s appearing, no proclamation that Yahwe has become king over all the earth. Like Psalm 82 this psalm also selects and describes a single situation out of the many that go to make up Yahwe’s final establishment of his kingdom upon earth. It is presupposed in the psalm that Yahwe has already proclaimed his sovereignty over the earth and established his own anointed king upon the throne of the world in Jerusalem. But (verses 1-3) the nations of the world are plotting rebellion against Yahwe and against his anointed king. Their rebellion (verses 4-6) simply provokes Yahwe to derisive laughter. Over against their impotence he simply reaffirms his inflexible decision:

Then the king takes up the word (verses 7-9) and announces the divine decree. Yahwe had formally adopted him as son, and had given to him the kingdoms of the earth with power over them to break them in pieces. The king has spoken. Another voice makes the practical application (verses 10-12) and warns the kings and the rulers of the earth to make their humble peace with Yahwe, and with his anointed, before his wrath is fully aroused.

Chapter IV
HEBREW NATURE HYMNS

The abode of the hymns already discussed was the sanctuary and their place was in sanctuary worship, but there is a group of hymns, the real background of which was Nature’s great out of doors. These hymns include Psalms 29; 19:1-5b; 19:5c-7; 104; and 8. Of these Psalm 29 resembles most closely in its literary form the standard hymns. It has the call to praise, the body of the hymn setting forth the greatness of Yahwe; and it has a conclusion, though the conclusion is not a renewed summons to exalt the deity. The hymn as a whole expresses the reaction of the psalmist to a thunder and lightning storm. He watches it rise in the Lebanon mountains in the North, and follows it with his eye and ear and imagination until it loses itself in the desert of Kadesh. He observes the forked lightning (verse 7) but is vastly more impressed by the thunder to which he attributes the destructive power of the storm. The significant fact is that the storm does not create in the psalmist fear, but moves him to adoration of his great God, and to renewed faith and confidence. The introductory call to praise (verses 1-2) summons the gods above to worship Yahwe and to ascribe to him glory and strength. The body of the hymn celebrates the thunder, “The Voice of Yahwe,” somewhat as Psalm 19:8-10 celebrates: “The Law of Yahwe.” Verse 9c: “But in his temple every one saith Glory” forms a transition to the conclusion in verses 9-10, which remembers that the God of the thunder storm was also the God of the flood, the eternal king, who because of his eternal existence and his great power can give strength and peace to his people.

Psalm 19 contains two short nature hymns or more probably two fragments of hymns. The first Psalm 19:1-5b seems to be a hymn of the night. It does not call upon the heavens to praise God, as the typical hymn would do, but simply announces that the heavens do declare God’s glory. This they do without language or words or sounds over all the earth, ceaselessly declaring his glory from day to day, from night to night, from age to age. Psalm 19:5c-7 has no introductory 40 nor concluding call to praise, and the few lines that we have, effective though they are, are probably only a fraction of the body of the original hymn. Moreover the original was undoubtedly a hymn to Shamash the Assyrian Sun God. The Assyrians watched with reverent eye the Sun God’s glorious journey across the heavens. They knew also of his wearisome return in the underworld from West to East, and they were glad to think of the bride and the repast awaiting him in his tent on the edge of the heavenly ocean. The Hebrew like the Assyrian had great admiration for the illuminating rays and the fervent heat of the sun, but he would go no further than to compare the sun to a bridegroom, and a strong man. It does seem strange that the psalmist has retained in verse 4c the sun’s tent: “For the sun he hath set a tent in the sea,” but even so it is Yahwe who has placed the tent there, even as it is Yahwe who has placed the sun in the heavens. The Hebrew who used this fragment of a poem saw God’s glory revealed in the progress of the sun across the sky by day, even as he saw that glory revealed in the star studded heavens by night.

Psalm 104 differs from the standard Hebrew hymns of praise in two respects. It is addressed in considerable part directly to Deity in the second person, while the standard Hebrew hymn regularly uses the third person. Also it has a petition at its close, which the standard hymn has not. In these two respects Psalm 104 resembles a prayer. However the petition is very brief, formal, almost incidental; it can scarcely be said to grow out of the psalm, and certainly the hymnal portion (verses 1-34) can not be regarded as introductory to it. Psalm 104 is also remarkable among Hebrew hymns for its length, as a hymn devoted exclusively to the activity of God in nature. Of the other nature hymns in the Psalter, Psalm 19:1-5b and Psalm 19:5c-7 are mere fragments, and Psalms 8 and 29 are relatively short, but Psalm 104 contains seventy-nine lines of which the first seventy-one are dominated by the theme:

As it stands in the text Psalm 104 has a hymnal introduction and 41 conclusion. The brief introduction may indeed be a liturgical addition. In it the psalmist calls upon himself to praise Yahwe: “Bless my soul Yahwe.” The conclusion is longer and expresses the psalmist’s life long devotion to his God:

Again it may be noted that the petition in verse 35ab: “Let sinners be consumed, out of the earth, and let the wicked be no more,” has no real organic connection with the hymn, and certainly the concluding “Hallelujah” may well be an addition.

The analysis of the body of the hymn is clear. Verses 1-4 praise the God of heaven; verses 5-9, the God of creation; verses 10-18, the God of the earth, the domestic animals, and man; verses 19-21, the God of the night; verses 22-24, the God of the day; verses 25-26, the God of the sea; verses 27-30, the God who giveth life to everything that liveth. The body of the hymn then culminates in the pious wish that Yahwe’s glory may endure forever and that the mighty God may rejoice in his works, even he who causes the earthquake and the volcanic eruption. Here also comes the petition, but a petition has really no place in a genuine Hebrew hymn of praise.

It is clear that Psalm 104 is predominatingly and essentially a hymn of praise. Yet it has in its use of the second person; in the presence of the petition; and perhaps also in its length, since it is a nature hymn, features that seem unhebraic. It is perhaps also significant that its close resemblance to the famous Egyptian hymn of Pharaoh Iknaton has often been observed. We have, it would seem, in Psalm 104 a very probable example of the influence of foreign literature, Egyptian, Assyrian, or both.

Psalm 8 might be considered an impressionistic soliloquy of the starry night, were it not dominated by the thought of God, and addressed directly to God. It begins with an exclamation for the psalmist 42 is overwhelmingly impressed with the realization of the glory of God:

Yet how strange that the great God of the universe should have revealed himself to the weak children of Israel. It is assuredly the knowledge of God as the creator of the heavens that is to overcome arrogant rebellion against God, such rebellion as actually prevails in the psalmist’s world. May it not be true that the great God hath chosen through the testimony of the humble to confound the mighty:

But how marvelous this condescension of God to stoop to man in his weakness, and then what a marvelous place God has given man in the universe! The psalmist feels first the insignificance of man:

Then, however, he pays tribute to the place that God has given man:

And now in recognition both of the glory of God revealed in the heavens and also of the goodness of God to man, the psalmist again exclaims out of the fullness of his heart:

Psalm 8 takes a unique position among the Old Testament hymns of praise. It is addressed altogether in the second person to Yahwe, and to that extent takes on the form and nature of a prayer. But it has no suggestion of a petition, nor does it make any definite effort to express gratitude. It has something of the reflective attitude, as it seems to ponder over man’s place in the universe, but it is assuredly not a teaching nor a wisdom psalm. It has been maintained by some scholars that the first two and last two lines were meant to be sung by a chorus, while the body of the hymn is a solo. However, it is more natural to suppose that in the use of the plural, “Yahwe our Lord,” the psalmist is simply recognizing himself as one of the many followers of Yahwe, rather than that a choir is singing. The truth is that the psalm is intensely individualistic and dominated from beginning to end by the feeling of adoration for Yahwe, the Hebrews’ God and only God, whose name is glorious in all the earth. It is a hymn of praise, but one that stands apart because of the originality and beauty of its literary form, and the sincerity and profundity of the spiritual experience that inspired it.

Chapter V
HEBREW HYMNS IN PRAISE OF SACRED INSTITUTIONS

But there were in Hebrew religious poesie not only hymns in praise of deity, but also hymns in praise of sacred institutions. Especially prominent were hymns in praise of the sanctuary. Naturally however, only those that were written in praise of the temple in Jerusalem, or could be so interpreted had a chance for survival, and of those we have in the Psalter only 84, 122, 48, and 87.

It is best to begin with Psalm 84, for it represents a transition stage between the psalm of lamentation and petition and the hymn of praise. In great part Psalm 84 is addressed in the second person to deity, and it actually has, in verses 9, 10, a petition for Yahwe’s favor. The request in these verses is not explicit, yet the context, especially verses 3 and 11, makes it clear that our psalmist, like the author of Psalms 42-43, earnestly desires the privilege of worshipping in the temple. Moreover the petition of verses 9, 10 is reinforced by a profession of devotion in verses 11-13 that corresponds to the affirmation of faith, so characteristic a feature of the prayer of supplication. In so far this psalm is also itself a psalm of lamentation and supplication. On the other hand verses 2-8 are essentially an expression of devotion to the temple:

He envies the birds which nest in the temple (verse 4), the priests who are continually in the sanctuary praising God, and the men who, by God’s favor, are privileged to pilgrimage to Jerusalem, to pass from rampart to rampart, and to behold God in Zion. Psalm 84 therefore deserves to be grouped with the hymns in praise of the temple.

As Psalm 84 has kinship with the psalms of lamentation and supplication, 45 so Psalm 122 has a certain kinship with the psalms of faith. In the latter the psalmist has a joyous confidence in Yahwe, in this psalm he has great joy in the temple and the holy city. Verses 1 and 2 affirm his joy in the temple, and his positive intention of attending in company with others the great festivals:

Then follows, in verses 3-5, his praise of Jerusalem the city of David:

Having thus praised the city, the psalmist exhorts others to pray for it:

The psalm then closes with his personal protestation of devotion to the city:

It has been said above that this psalm has some similarity to the psalms of faith. It is possible that it also, in verses 6-9, reflects the influence of prophetic style. But, since the spirit that animates it is one of enthusiasm for the holy city, it is best classed among the hymns of praise.

Psalm 48 is also, in a sense, a transition hymn, for it praises, not God alone, but both God and the city in which he dwells. Verse 2 praises Yahwe, and verse 3 the city:

Then verses 4-8 record the city’s chief glory, that Yahwe has been in its midst, its mighty defender against its foes:

Our psalmist and his associates are obviously pilgrims to Jerusalem. They had previously heard of such events as the deliverance of Jerusalem from Sennacherib; they have now seen with their own eyes the sacred sites which testify to such deliverances. They have meditated on Yahwe’s goodness in the holy temple, and are certain of his universal fame. Therefore, they can bid Zion and the towns of Judah rejoice in their God:

It is evident that the closing verses (13-15) must have been spoken in Jerusalem, and it is perhaps equally clear that they must have been spoken, not by the pilgrims to residents of Jerusalem, but rather by residents of Jerusalem, probably the temple choir to the pilgrims, exhorting them to make their final procession around the city, that 47 they may know it and be able to tell the story of the city to the oncoming generation, and so inspire in them reverence and loyalty for the God of their fathers:

But if verses 9-12 were spoken by the pilgrims, and verses 13-15 by the temple choir, then it is probable that likewise verses 2-4 were spoken by the pilgrims, and verses 5-8 by the temple choir. Thus Psalm 48 may be considered a liturgical hymn of praise, rendered in the temple on one of the great religious festivals that brought the pilgrims of the diaspora to the holy city.

Psalm 87 is a hymn devoted entirely to the praise of the temple and the holy city. Unfortunately the text is in disorder. Probably verse 5b should be brought back to verse 1, and then the introductory verses 1-3 would read:

The rest of the psalm is exceedingly difficult. Verse 3 leads us to expect a divine pronouncement regarding Zion’s future glory. In that day Egypt and Babylon, Philistia and Tyre, together with far distant Ethiopia, will recognize it as a distinction to be a Hebrew. Verses 4 and 5 perhaps read:

Then the psalmist informs us (verses 6, 7) that Yahwe himself will count up the scattered Jews of the diaspora, and they in turn in that great day will be proudly mindful of the mother city:

Two psalms, 119 and 19:8-15, are in praise of the Jewish law. Since Psalm 119 is an alphabetical psalm, each successive eight lines beginning with the twenty-two successive letters of the Hebrew alphabet, its one hundred seventy-six lines are necessarily a very mechanical and mediocre production. Psalm 19:8-15, on the other hand, is a much finer piece of craftsmanship. The first six lines (verses 8-10) which are strikingly uniform in style, draw attention to six complementary virtues of the law. Then four lines (verses 11-12) express in general terms the joy that is to be found in knowledge of the law and the practical benefit to be derived from obedience to it. Verses 13 and 14 present his humble petition that he be delivered from violating the law unwittingly or presumptuously, while verse 15 dedicates the hymn so carefully written, not to any princely patron but to Yahwe, his strength and redeemer.

Another little group of hymns deals with the king, who as the anointed of Yahwe was also a sacred institution. From a modern standpoint however Psalm 45 is purely secular in character, celebrating as it does the king’s wedding day. Verse 2 is introductory in which the author announces himself as a clever poet. Verses 3-10 are in characteristically extravagant praise of the king. Verses 11-16 are devoted to the bride, while verse 17 makes tactful and appropriate reference to the princes yet to be born. Verse 18 concluding the poem, makes the naïvely modest promise that the pen of the poet will guarantee immortal fame to the king.

Psalm 101 is likewise secular, for it is evidently a king’s proclamation. As such it may have been used in the coronation service in the temple, and so preserved in the sanctuary song book. Quite naturally, as is always to be expected, the king promises to walk uprightly in his own private life, to choose wise counsellors, to turn a deaf ear to slanderers, to give protection to honest men, and to suppress the wicked.

Psalm 72 might likewise be fitted into the coronation service, being then the prayer offered for a just and successful reign. This would mean translating the successive sentences of the psalm from verse 1 49 to verse 11 and from verse 15 to verse 17 as petitions. Thus verse 2 would be translated:

and the other verses correspondingly, and the psalm would accordingly be classed as a prayer of supplication. On the other hand if the successive sentences, with the necessary exception of verse 1 are to be regarded as predictions of a glorious reign, then the psalm is to be regarded as a hymn in praise of the Messiah, or possibly of an ordinary king who has just ascended the throne.

Psalm 110 and Psalm 2 are clearly hymns in praise of the king. Psalm 110 brings to the king in verse 1 the oracle of Yahwe:

Then in verses 2-7 the priest supplements this oracle with his assurance of Yahwe’s effective support, and the king’s great triumph over all his enemies. The imagery describing Yahwe’s activity belongs to eschatology, and we undoubtedly have here an eschatological hymn in praise of the king.

Psalm 2 is likewise an eschatological hymn, dealing with that same feature of the last days as Psalm 110, and the last futile rebellion of the nations against the will of Yahwe and Yahwe’s king. In verses 1-3 some one, perhaps a layman, asks why the nations are so foolish as to rebel against Yahwe:

Then in verses 4-5 a priest, one who knows the plan of God, gives answer:

And now it is for the king himself to add a final authoritative word concerning Yahwe’s plan, for to the king himself Yahwe had actually spoken:

Yahwe’s decree, bestowing such power over the nations upon Israel’s king, having thus been made known, it only remained to advise the nations to make humble submission to Yahwe and to Yahwe’s representative upon the throne in Zion:

Here again, as in Psalm 110, because of the prominence of the king in this dramatic setting forth of one of the important features of the last days, Psalm 2 must be classed as an eschatological hymn in praise of the king.

Division II
ASSYRIAN HYMNS OF PRAISE

Chapter VI
ASSYRIAN HYMNAL INTRODUCTIONS TO PRAYERS

As in the case of the Hebrew hymns of praise, so also it is right to attempt to see the Assyrian hymns in relation to the whole body of Assyrian religious poetry. Assyrian communities and Assyrian individuals inevitably had their afflictions, and like their kinsmen the Hebrews they called out unto deity in their distresses in prayers of lamentation and supplication. They experienced also on various occasions what they believed to be deliverances out of their troubles, and when they could attribute those deliverances to the aid of deity, they felt gratitude and expressed their gratitude by sacrifices and thanksgiving to the gods. Furthermore the Assyrians felt adoration for deity, trusted in deity, reflected upon the will of deity and the secret of the prosperous life, and like their kinsmen the Hebrews they strove to express their ideas and their emotions in poetry. Accordingly we have in Assyrian religious poetry much that corresponds to what is found in the Old Testament psalter.

However, one striking difference between Hebrew and Assyrian religious poetry confronts us at the very outset. The Hebrew poetry is concerned with the one god Yahwe, while Assyrian poetry has to do with many gods, Shamash, Sin, Nebo, Ninib, Nergal, Adad, Nusku, Bel, Marduk, and others. This might seem to make it very difficult, if not impossible, to form any unified conception of Assyrian religion, or to make any satisfactory comparison between the psalms of Assyrian and Israel. But from the beginning there were many points of similarity between the Assyrian gods of the various city states, who frequently bore, to be sure, different names, but who represented or were associated with the same objects or forces in nature. Furthermore the growth of political unity in Mesopotamia was accompanied there, as it has been elsewhere, by a growth in religious unity. As one city gained authority over other cities, its god not only acquired greater prestige, but he also extended his authority in greater or lesser measure over the conquered cities and over the gods of those 54 cities. Moreover he tended to take to himself the chief prerogatives and attributes of the conquered deities. With the growth and organization of empire there developed, in the exaltation of one god to a supreme place, a tendency toward monotheism; and with the inevitable interchange of religious ideas a gradually increasing similarity in the attributes and prerogatives of the chief gods. Especially is it to be recognized that hymnal enthusiasm tends to blot out for the time the consciousness of other deities, and to exalt in wisdom and power and goodness the deity which is being worshipped, so that for the moment the attitude of the worshipper may be practically that of a monotheist. Accordingly the many names for deity have relatively little significance; they offer no serious obstacle to the student who would compare the religious ideas and experiences of Mesopotamia with the religious ideas and experiences of Israel.

Here again, however, it must be borne in mind that the literature of Assyria which has survived is only a small fraction of that which once existed, and what we now have owes its survival in part, to be sure to merit, but in part also to mere chance. Nevertheless sufficient literature exists to justify two general observations. The first is this, that the closest correspondence between Assyrian and Hebrew religious poetry is to be found in the psalms of lamentation and supplication, which represent and express only the lowest level of religious experience in the Hebrew psalms. The second general observation is that while Hebrew religious poetry develops, and clearly differentiates into independent literary species, the Assyrian religious poetry does not achieve so full a development, nor so clear a differentiation. The one explanation of this fact would seem to be that Assyrian religion did not go so far in emancipating itself from superstition and formalism, and in achieving a lofty conception of deity and a profound religious experience. Certain it is that Assyria did not develop to the same degree as did Israel the independent prayer of thanksgiving, the independent psalm of faith, the independent wisdom psalm, nor the independent hymn of praise.

The number of Assyrian hymns copied, transliterated, and translated by Assyriologists, is between sixty and seventy. The number can not be definitely fixed, since many texts are but mere fragments because of the breaking and marring of the clay tablets. The fact 55 that so many hymnal compositions are incomplete necessarily makes the task of interpreting the individual hymns and of arriving at well founded general conclusions much more difficult. The sixty odd hymns, it may be of interest now to note, are distributed among the Assyrian deities as follows: Marduk 14, Nergal 8, Shamash 7, Ninib 7, Ishtar 6, Sin 5, Adad and Nusku 3 each, Nebo, Bel, and Belit two each, Enlil, Asshur, Sarpanitum, Damkina one each.

Perhaps the most important general fact about the Assyrian hymns is that the great majority of them are addressed directly to the deity in the second person, which is the usage of prayer. Moreover a very large proportion of these can not be called independent literary compositions, since they are followed by, and are introductory to, prayers, or magical ceremonies, or the offering of sacrifices. In some cases the prayer is much longer than the hymn, while in others the prayer shrinks to a very brief petition, couched in general terms. This has occasioned much confusion of terminology, some calling a poem a hymn, others naming it a prayer. It is necessary therefore at this point to attempt to distinguish clearly between the hymn and the prayer.

The purpose of the hymn is to praise the deity and the emotion behind the hymn is enthusiasm for the great and glorious god; for his power, for his wisdom, for his great achievements. The genuine hymn, accordingly, is objective rather than subjective. The prayer, on the other hand, is concerned with the relationship of worshipper and deity. The worshipper is in trouble and looks to the deity for forgiveness, or prosperous and turns to the deity with gratitude. The prayer is accordingly subjective rather than objective. In the hymn, the deity is prominent; in the prayer the worshipper. Prayers are most naturally addressed to the deity in the second person, while the hymn, in which the worshipper recedes into the background and the thought is of God alone, would more naturally employ the third person. Since then these Assyrian hymns are in the second person, which is the usage of prayer, and since the vast majority of these hymns are actually followed by prayers, it is best to begin with the hymns which are clearly only hymnal introductions to prayers, and then to pass by way of those, in which the petition is secondary and unimportant, to that which approaches the genuine independent hymn. It seems at 56 least possible that the Assyrian hymn is an evolution from the hymnal introduction of the prayers.

Beginning then with class I of Assyrian hymns, the hymnal introductions to prayers, it is to be further observed, that these prayers are temple prayers. Marduk No. 9 has fourteen lines of directions for the performance of certain ceremonies, after which the priest is instructed to take the hand of the sick man and repeat the psalm, of which lines 17 to 44 are the hymnal portion, and 45 to 94 the prayer proper. So also Marduk No. 12 states in lines 1 to 5 of the text that the Urugallu priest is to arise in the first hour of the night on the second day of Nisan, wash in river water, put on a linen garment, and repeat the psalm; of which lines 6 to 28 are hymnal, 29 to 32 petition the favor of the deity for the city Babylon and the temple Esagila.

In a hymn to Marduk No. 11, the connecting link between the hymnal portion and the petition is: “I, the Urugallu priest of Ekur, would speak the favorable word.”

A hymn to Ishtar No. 3 is followed by an enumeration of the sacrifices for the goddess and of presents for the temple servants. Above all, the hymns are in such a uniform and formal style, and the gods are so frequently addressed as lords of such and such temples that one is compelled to look to the temple as the birthplace and home of many of these Assyrian hymns.

It is altogether natural that there should be a hymnal introduction to the temple prayer. The Assyrian god in his temple is as the king in his palace. He must not be approached abruptly or brusquely. Indeed the Assyrian gods are kings, queens, princes. Consequently the formal court style is used in addressing them. It is not used rigidly in all hymns, but it is the norm from which it is advisable to take our departure. An example of this formal court style is Nergal No. 1.

Assyrian hymns of class I can be divided into two portions, the first portion, the invocation, the second portion, the ascription of praise. It is especially the invocation in which the court style is seen. Every member at the court of a monarchy has an official title, be that member king, queen, prince or noble. That title consists first of all in the lineage or genealogy by virtue of which he has his rank. So it is with the Assyrian deity. Thus the hymn to Nebo No. 1 begins:

A hymn to Ninib No. 1:

A hymn to Nergal No. 1:

Hymn to Marduk No. 7:

Just as the king’s title includes mention of the provinces and countries over which he holds sway, so the god is to be addressed as lord of those cities and temples, in which he is recognized and honored. Nebo is:

Marduk is:

Sin is:

Nusku is:

The sway of the gods was extended however far beyond their temples and temple cities. Marduk is not merely “King of Ezida, lord of Emachtila,” he is “Marduk, lord of the lands,” and “Marduk, king of heaven and earth.”[5] So also Ishtar is “Ishtar, queen of all peoples, directress of mankind”;[6] while Shamash is:

It would be expected that the gods would have official duties at the heavenly court, and that these offices would be included in their titles. Opposed to this, however, must have been the tendency of the worshippers to exalt their own special deity to a supreme position; and this would tend to bring with it the elimination of all titles that would suggest a subordinate position, and they would be inclined at the same time to attribute to their own deity those offices, for which other deities were famed. Nebo however is addressed as

Nusku is:

a title quite appropriate for an earthly king but seemingly rather incongruous when applied to a god.

It is Nusku, leader and counsellor of the great gods,[11] Ninib is

It may be said here that we probably owe to the court style the ever recurring adjectives: “strong,” “mighty,” “powerful,” “perfect,” “unique,” “glorious,” “noble,” “exalted,” and such nouns as “ruler,” “governor,” “judge,” “lord,” “prince,” “king,” which have been transferred from the earthly sovereigns to the gods they worshipped. Here too it may be pointed out that it is altogether in harmony with court style that the god’s prowess as a warrior, or wisdom as a counsellor, or ethical virtues as a ruler should be expressed in his titles, even as such qualities have been expressed in the titles of earthly kings.

Not all hymns, however, of class I are, strictly speaking, temple hymns. The Assyrian deities were not limited to their temples and the cities over which their sway extended. They were also identified with natural forces and the heavenly bodies, the sun, the moon and the stars. The Babylonians and Assyrians were impressed by the glory of the rising and the setting sun, the beauty of the waxing and waning moon; by the brilliancy of the evening star and the planets and by the grandeur of the thunder-storm. Certain phenomena also had their deep significance. An eclipse of the moon might well bode disaster for king and court and land. The rising of the sun was the auspicious moment for the banishing of all the demons and all the powers of darkness.

Accordingly we have a group of hymns which do not belong so much to the temple as to the great out-of-doors. In other words they are nature hymns. They have such invocations as the following:

or thus:

or this:

or this:

or this:

The following first lines of a hymn are neither invocation nor ascription, yet how naturally does an appeal made to the sun-god for freeing of the king from the ban resting upon him, at the moment of the scattering of darkness before the rising sun, begin with such an hymnal introduction, as this:

So far we have been dealing with the first portion of the hymnal introduction, namely the invocation. We have seen that the court style would prescribe that the god be addressed by his proper title, which includes his lineage and his sovereignty over temple and city, or his exalted place in nature, or both. Naturally however when the sway of the god extended far beyond temple and city to all lands, to heaven and earth, it was not so necessary to salute the god as lord of city and temple. And similarly when the god was exalted to a supreme position among the gods, the matter of pedigree became secondary. Perhaps this explains the shortening of the invocation in certain hymns to a single line:

or even to a single word

On the other hand, it was easy to expand indefinitely the invocation from its natural length of four to six lines, until the invocation became itself hymnal praise of the god. So with Sin No. 5 where the hymnal invocation to Sin covers 23 lines.

Following the invocation in the hymnal introductions of Assyrian prayers is the ascription of praise, just as modern prayers frequently begin with the elements of invocation and ascription. The ascription of praise may be quite similar in content, but while the invocation assumes certain attributes of the deity as already recognized and known by everyone and as having become official titles of the deity, the ascription definitely assigns virtues or attributes to the deity. The invocation consists of phrases and adjectival clauses: it makes no statement. It is simply an extended nominative of address. The ascription consists of independent sentences, asserting certain attributes of the deity. It is altogether natural that the humble worshipper, approaching the god, should assign to that god greatness and wisdom and authority and might, for this not only pleases the god, but also tends to awaken sympathy for the helpless and suffering suppliant, and reminds the deity of his responsibility for the worshippers.

More particularly it is also to be expected that the worshipper assigns those special virtues or powers to the deity, to which he is about to make his appeal. Man posits in God that which corresponds to his own need. Accordingly, correspondence between the ascriptions and the petitions show the unity of the whole composition and indicate that it is a prayer. Frequently the suppliant is a sick person, and so naturally reference is made to the power of the deity to heal:

The cause of his misfortune, the Babylonian seeks not in natural 62 causes, but in the displeasures of the deity, and this displeasure may be due to sin. To Ninib he prays:

and this petition is made to the god of whom he says in the ascription:

If, however, the worshipper feels that he has been unjustly treated, then he appeals to the justice of God:

Here follows the plea for the healing of the king.

As healing of sickness was a magical performance, magical powers are attributed to the gods, in the hymnal introduction. Thus:

In a Nusku magical text No. 3 Nusku is addressed as:

and there follows in the petition:

In Sin No. 4 the suppliant is one with whom his god and goddess were angry, upon whom destruction and ruin had come, whose heart was darkened and soul troubled. It is appropriate that he should say to his god,

In Marduk No. 12 the petition:

corresponds to the ascription:

It has been seen in the case of the invocations that they vary in length from a single word to twenty-three lines, and it is fairly obvious that the increasing length of the invocation gives it more and more of hymnal character. There is a similar variation in the length of the ascriptions. There are some of a single line:

In other hymnal introductions the ascription is three, six, eight, eleven, and more lines in length. As the ascription increases in length, and as the lament and petition of the prayer likewise diminish in length, and as the ascription of praise changes in character, no longer corresponding to the petitions of the suppliant, we get the evolution of the hymn.

In the well-known prayer to Ishtar (No. 7), the hymnal introduction consists of thirty-seven lines. In it occur such rhetorical questions as:

Yet the last lines of this same hymn are particularly suitable to a prayer of lamentation and petition:

and this same hymn to Ishtar opens with the words:

Furthermore, in the hymnal portion is imbedded a lament of four lines, with the refrain:

Therefore this psalm, although containing hymnal material of exceptional beauty, is a single composition, a prayer with a hymnal introduction. On the other hand, Marduk No. 4 has sixteen lines extolling the exploits of the war god, when the text breaks off. The breaking of the text makes a decision difficult, but as there is no indication in any of the ascriptions of praise that a prayer is to follow, one would be inclined to pronounce it a fragment of a hymn rather than of a prayer.

Marduk No. 1 is actually followed by a prayer of an individual, but since the hymnal portion consists of thirty-eight lines describing in large measure mythical feats of the god, one is almost justified in regarding this hymnal portion as an independent hymn.

On the border line between prayer and hymn is Sarpanitum No. 1. The petition is a very general one, asking favor for the worshipper, the king and the sons of Babylon:

It would seem that this petition might be little more than a pious conclusion, or even a postscript to the hymn. If this be true, then the 65 main purpose of the psalm is that of praise, and one must class it among the hymns, remembering however that it is an evolution from the hymnal introduction of the prayer.

Very similar is the case of Sin No. 5. In this psalm are twenty-three lines of invocation, fifteen lines of ascription, and eleven lines of petition. Moreover the portion which we have called ascription opens with a couplet of question and answer:

This couplet is followed by eight lines in praise of the word of Sin, expressed however in the second person, not the third. Unfortunately, the translation of four of the remaining lines is so uncertain that no conclusion can be drawn from them as to the nature of the whole psalm. However, the petition at the close is a general one in behalf of temple and city, and the calling upon the various gods of the pantheon to placate Sin is a recognition of the supreme place of that deity. Here again then, as in the case of the hymn to Sarpanitum, we have a hymn, standing at the end of the line of development of the hymnal introductions.

We have left of the hymns of Class I, two hymns which have no petition at the close. The first of these, however, the hymn to Enlil, may be regarded as introductory to the offering of sacrifices. Nevertheless it is practically an independent hymn and sung, as the conclusion shows, by a congregation:

Father Enlil, with song majestically we come. The hymn to Shamash (No. 7) is unique among the Assyrian hymns, because of its length, being four hundred and twenty-four lines. The style is uniform throughout. In the beginning of the poem line four is a repetition of line two, and line three simply adds the name Shamash to line one. As in other hymns so here the god’s name is held back from the first line in order that it may be inserted with greater emphasis in the second line. Here too there are repeated invocations to the god, that is we have an invocation and ascription of praise, then a second invocation and ascription of praise. Throughout the poem nearly every line is complete by itself and there is no strophic arrangement. Nor 66 are there rhetorical questions, nor questions and answers, to relieve the monotony. Portions of it read like wisdom literature:

These two features, the great length of the hymn and the presence of these wisdom passages would seem to indicate a late and somewhat blasé development of the hymn. Not great enthusiasm for the deity, but sober reflection and the pious wish to say everything possible about the deity controlled the writer. The complete absence of any magical element, whether of ceremonies or prayers, shows that there must have been a considerable hymnal literature of which unfortunately we are not in possession.

We have seen that the great majority of Assyrian hymns are addressed in the second person to deity, which is the usage of prayer; that the temple is the home of these hymns but that a few of them might be called Nature hymns; that they may be divided into two portions, the invocation and the ascription of praise; that they are written in the court style, employing the honorific titles of royalty and nobility; that with very few exceptions they are followed by petitions for divine help, and that the ascriptions of praise are frequently so worded as to be little else than introductory to such petitions; that, as the hymnal portion is lengthened, and as the lament and petition are shortened until they disappear entirely, we have the evolution of the hymn; that it begins with something approaching flattery of the god, as introductory to the appeal for aid, and develops into a genuine expression of adoration for deity.

The invocation of the Assyrian hymn corresponds in a loose way to the call to praise of the Hebrew hymn, and the Ascription of praise corresponds much more closely to the body of the Hebrew hymn. It exalts the deity as being great in the midst of the gods, as bearing a glorious name, as possessor of temples and cities, and as ruler over wide areas, as the creator and preserver of the physical universe, and as being himself wise, and powerful, and merciful, a king and judge 67 among gods and men. Closer attention will be given to the content of the Assyrian hymn when comparing that content with the content of the Hebrew hymns of praise.

It ought to be observed that in many instances the Assyrian hymnal introduction to prayer is clearly attested to be the vehicle of individual rather than congregational worship. In certain hymns we have examples of god addressing god in hymnal language, and in connection with other hymns there are directions for the priest to repeat himself both hymnal introduction and the petition which follows it. Moreover in the petition which follows the hymnal introduction a space is frequently left for the insertion of the name of the suppliant. Still more important is the fact that in the hymnal introductions themselves the first personal pronoun frequently occurs:

On the other hand there is but one example of the actual use of the first person plural in the hymnal introductions:

It is not contended that the hymnal introductions are strongly individual in character, showing the marks of individual originality and genius; on the contrary they are on the whole rather stereotyped and monotonous in their sameness: neither is it urged that the god of these hymnal introductions seems to be in any very marked way the god of the individual human being, but that the hymnal prayer does provide a way for the individual to approach deity in the sanctuary, and that worship was accordingly individual as well as social.

For very many of the Assyrian Hymnal Introductions there is no clear and certain way of determining whether the hymn is congregational or individual, although the general character of the titles and attributes ascribed to deity suggests in many instances the social rather than the individual hymn. However we do have two examples of the processional hymn. Above we quoted the first two lines of a twenty-five line Sumerian processional hymn to Enlil. In this case the worshippers are advancing into the sanctuary bringing with them their sacrificial gifts:

We have another splendid example of a processional hymn in the hymn to Marduk, No. 13. It is a hymn of thirty-seven lines, of which the first thirty lines welcome the god to his temple, while the last seven lines implore his favor for the cities of Nippur and Sippar and especially for Babylon and his temple Esagila:

This hymn was sung while the great god, Marduk was being conducted in triumphant procession to his temple:

In the first thirty lines this pious wish is repeated with a succession of titles for the deity. Then not only the city, but the great Gods one by one greet Marduk, wishing him on his entrance into his house peace. But processional hymns were also sung when the god was carried forth from the temple:

It has been mentioned that a common motif for praise was the possession of sanctuaries. It is of interest that out of such hymnal lines as the following developed the independent hymn in praise of the sanctuary:

In Marduk No. 7 and Bel No. 1 we have two fragments of hymns which apparently were devoted entirely to the praise of the sanctuary, as these two hymns are not addressed in the second person to deity, the discussion of them is postponed for a later section.

It is also of interest that hymnal lines in praise of the divine word tended to develop into the independent hymn in praise of the word. Such lines are:

Before concluding this chapter on Assyrian hymnal introductions to prayers, it is well to give one complete example of such a hymn, the home of which was the sanctuary:

The following hymn, which belongs not so much to the sanctuary as to Nature, is of peculiar interest because of the light it throws upon Psalm 19:40-6. Here indeed the Sun god not only runs his course but is in very truth a bridegroom, and has his tent, and, refreshed by the banquet he has enjoyed, is strong to run his race:

The following delightful fragment of a hymn to Shamash seems to belong even more to Nature’s out of doors than the preceding hymn:

Corresponding to this hymn to the Sun God, the following hymn to the Moon God, Sin, is likewise very beautiful:

Chapter VII
ASSYRIAN ANTIPHONAL HYMNS

There is also among the Assyrian hymns addressed in the second person to deity a group of hymns, which are distinguished by refrains, frequent repetitions of a phrase or clause, or marked parallelisms of lines. It is, however, in most cases very difficult to know whether the hymn is actually antiphonal or not.

Nergal No. 4 is a hymn fragment of ten lines. For the first eight lines, the second half of each line is the refrain: “Destroyer of the hostile land,” while the first half of each line gives a separate title of the god. Thus:

One would be inclined to suggest that a priest chanted the first half line and a choir the refrain. The difficulty is that elsewhere we have such refrains where an individual is the speaker.

In a hymn to Ramman (No. 3) Enlil thus addressed his son Ramman:

The next five lines, still continuing the message of Enlil to his son, has the refrain: “Who can strive with thee.”

Since these two refrains are both in a passage spoken by an individual, it must be concluded that in this hymn at any rate the refrain is used, not for antiphonal rendering, but for impressiveness, perhaps for magical power.

In the light of the above fact, it is altogether possible that the refrain occurring eight times in the invocation to Sin (Sin No. 5) may have been recited by the priest, and not by the choir in antiphonal response to the priest. The refrain differs from the preceding examples in that the titles of deities which lend variety to the lines are imbedded in the middle of the refrain:

A fragment of a hymn to Nebo (Nebo No. 2) has in a passage of five lines yet a different use of the refrain. The refrain which makes up the second half of each line is varied in three lines by the introduction of a new word from the first half line:

The carrying forward in the refrain of the important word of the first half line does suggest very forcibly that an individual chanted the first half line, and a choir the second half line. The same arrangement would hold for the couplet that follows the above lines, the second line of the couplet being a response to the first.

But mere arrangement in couplets and close parallelisms seems insufficient to prove the presence of responses, for in a hymn to Nebo (Nebo No. 4) it is Nusku who speaks, though the couplet would suggest a response:

Likewise the priest, we are informed, speaks in the following couplet:

So also the hymnal introduction of the two following couplets is to the prayer of an individual:

There are two long hymns to Nergal (Nergal No. 5 and No. 6) in which the antiphonal response seems to be a certainty. In Nergal No. 5 the response, coming in the second line, consists of the words: “God Nergal” followed by an additional word or phrase borrowed from the preceding line.

Since the second line of each of the twenty-five couplets above begins with the words: “God Nergal” and, then adds the first word or phrase of the preceding line, it may be called a refrain with variations. Moreover it would seem probable that a priest chanted the longer first line, and a choir the second line in response.

Nergal No. 6 opens with an introductory couplet:

This usage of repeating the first line and adding a word to it, suggests that the second line was repeated with greater emphasis, and possibly by a choir in response to a priest. After this introductory couplet there follow eleven couplets with a double refrain, made up of the first half lines of each couplet. Thus:

For the eleven such couplets one is inclined to surmise a choir chanting the refrains, and a priest announcing the titles of the deity. This seems more probable than that one choir repeated the first line and a second choir the second line. After two ordinary couplets, marked only by fairly close parallelism, there follows a triplet in praise of the incomparable god:

With the change of the invocation from “Lord” to “Most mighty one” to “Nergal” the lines undoubtedly grow in intensity until the name Nergal, which is held back until the third line, would be thundered forth in that third line with the greatest enthusiasm. Here again it seems highly probable that a choir chanted the refrain: “Who is like unto thee, who rivals thee?” The second part of this hymn consists of eighteen lines in couplets and triplets in praise of the word of Nergal. The ease with which the second half line follows from the first half line suggests that here the priest chanted the first half line, and a choir the second half line.

In this same class of Antiphonal hymns belong two hymns with a veritable din of repetitions. The first is Sin No. 3. It opens with the formal invocation:

It is easy to suppose that a priest chanted the entire first line, and that a choir chanted the first half lines of the next four lines while the priest supplied in the second half lines the titles of the deity. There follows what might be regarded as an imitation of the huzzas of a crowd welcoming a sovereign. Here it is welcoming the ascent of the moon god in the heavens:

After one further couplet the long subordinate clause ends, and the principal statement is made:

In the above, the clause: “when thou ascendest” is repeated nine times and may well have been shouted by the choir or concourse of worshippers.

Nergal No. 7 is a hymn with an even greater complexity of repetitions, and is somewhat suggestive of the repetitions characteristic of 78 the Hindu hymns sung to the accompaniment of the rattling Indian drums. The first fourteen lines are:

As to the rendering of this first part of Nergal No. 7, the first line “Nergal’s heroism, I will praise, I will sing” makes it certain that an individual, probably a priest or a choir leader, sang the first line, and highly probable that he recited the beginnings of each line, and the new additions to the lines, leaving to the choir to recite the refrain. The main purpose of the hymn, as announced in the opening line, was to narrate the heroic exploits of the gods in war against the enemy. The narration was sung by the leader, and the repetitions, giving clarity and emphasis, and possibly magical power, were evidently sung by the choir. The second portion of the hymn, as it is continued beyond the gap in the inscription until the tablet breaks off, differs from the first part, in that it largely lacks the repetitions, and in that it does not employ the third person of the verb, but is addressed directly to deity. It belongs accordingly among the hymnal introductions.

Finally there is now appended to this chapter the discussion of three hymns, which might perhaps be better called dramatic rather than antiphonal compositions. The first hymn is Ishtar No. 6, and it has three distinct parts. Part I is addressed by the worshipper to the deity, and consists of eleven lines. In lines 1-7 the worshipper attempts 79 to set forth clearly certain prominent characteristics of the deity he is seeking:

And having thus stated her attributes, the worshipper goes on to summon the goddess by her names:

Part II is the reply of the deity to the worshipper, announcing first in a strophe of four lines her appearance and the purpose thereof:

In the next strophe of four lines she expresses her gratification over her praise, possibly in allusion to the hymnal lines just sung by her worshipper or worshippers:

Part II concludes in a strophe of seven lines, each line setting forth a great feat of Ishtar’s, and ending with the clause: “that is my glory.” Here again it is shown that the presence of a refrain is no certain proof of antiphonal rendering, since the repetition is in the mouth of the individual Ishtar. Part III is the petition.

The hymn to Ramman (Adad No. 3) is also a composition in three 80 parts. Part I, lines 1-14 is a hymn of praise addressed in the second person directly to Ramman, of which the first ten lines are in praise of the name of Ramman. The lines are in three divisions, and the first six lines end with the refrain: “Bull mighty and glorious, is thy name exalted God.”

The next three lines introduce variety into the second division, while the tenth line is uniform with the first six, save for a change of wording in the first division:

The last four lines of Part I pass over from the praise of the name of Ramman to praise of the activity of the god of the storm:

Part II of this hymn, lines 15-26, is made up of Enid’s summons to his son Ramman to go up with sonorous voice, with lightning, and with small and great hail stones against the hostile land. This section has already been discussed earlier in this chapter. Part III is in 81 reality a brief conclusion to the hymn. It relates in four lines that Ramman obeyed the summons of Enlil:

The third hymnal composition of this group, the so-called litany to Asshur, is in two parts. Part I is a long hymn addressed by an individual, possibly Asshurbanipal, to Asshur, of which the chief distinguishing characteristic is the oft repeated vow of the individual to praise the deity. Nineteen of the twenty-two lines of Part I are as follows:

The promise of the poet here to make the fame of Asshur known to later generations corresponds to the promise of the author of Psalm 45 for the fame of the reigning Hebrew king. In Part II of this litany to Asshur, first Anu, Bel, and Ea, the lords of the gods proclaim 82 Asshurbanipal as ruler of Assyria, promising him many years of sovereignty, lines 1-6; and then Asshur appoints him to lordship over lands and men, lines 7-8. The concluding couplet, lines 9-10 is suggestive of the close relationship between the fame of the king, and the fame of the patron god of the kingdom.

Common to these three compositions and of great interest to the Old Testament student is the appearance and message of the deity, since there are parallels to this in the Old Testament. Especially close is the parallel to the decree of Yahwe in Psalm 2, and the oracle of Yahwe in Psalm 110.

Chapter VIII
ASSYRIAN SELF-LAUDATIONS OF THE GODS

In addition to the hymnal introductions to prayers, and the antiphonal hymns, there was in Assyrian poesie a distinct and notable group of hymns in which the gods praise themselves. It is of course presupposed in the hymnal introductions that the gods desire and welcome the praise of men. The gods do praise one another. Enlil praised Ramman in the hymn to Ramman No. 2 which was discussed in the last chapter. Also Nusku praises Ninib in Ninib No. 4:

Since the gods thus welcome the praise of gods and men, there is no reason why the Assyrian god should not appear to proclaim his greatness and to challenge the admiration of gods and men. In the hymn to Ishtar No. 6, which was studied in the preceding chapter, the goddess in response to the opening hymn of praise announced her appearance to give omens, and proclaimed in hymnal lines her own glory.

But there are other hymns sung by the gods in their own praise. Ninib No. 5 is a fragment of a hymn, fourteen lines in length, sung by Ninib in his own honor. Some of the lines are:

Similarly Ninib No. 6 is another hymnal fragment of fourteen lines in which the deity praises himself. Some of the lines exalting his prowess are:

More impressive is a hymn of some fifty lines, though the tablet is broken off, sung by Belit in her own honor. The theme of the hymn is the supremacy of Belit. Thus she announces herself:

Her power is irresistible:

Belit is supreme in heaven and in earth:

Yet this warlike goddess is apparently not without some tenderness:

Similar in its theme is a hymn to Ishtar (No. 4), for it begins thus:

She is like Belit a goddess of war:

She is the goddess of the evening star, and of the earth’s vegetation, the goddess of fertility:

There are three strophes in praise of the name of the goddess, beginning with the announcement of the seven names of the deity, after this fashion:

The last and twenty-third strophe is almost identical with the first strophe, in obedience to the same instinct or artistic principle, which causes the Hebrew hymn of praise to return in its conclusion to the opening call to praise:

Rather effective is the single line in response to the hymn of the goddess:

Is this line a pious gloss, the comment of a devout reader of the hymn, or is it an integral part of the hymnal composition? If the latter, then this hymn would belong in the same group with hymn to Ishtar No. 6, Ramman No. 2, and the litany to Asshur.

There is a second hymn to Ishtar (No. 5), of which the first lines are broken off, and which is followed by a priest’s short prayer, but which is spoken altogether by Ishtar in her own praise. At the beginning we have a strophe of nine lines, four couplets, and an additional line. The first half line of each couplet continues the same, “She who in the days of long ago,” and the first half line of the second line of each couplet remains just the name: “Ishtar.” The second half lines of each couplet are almost identical, and the second half of each couplet differs from the second half of the preceding couplet only by the changing of a single word. If the hymn were not in the first person, and thus put into the mouth of Ishtar herself, one would say that the first line of the couplet was recited by a priest, and that the second line was shouted by a choir in response:

There follows a strophe of six lines, of which the first half lines give different titles of Ishtar, and the second half lines have the refrain, “in the temple of my riches am I.” Then after three broken lines this hymnal composition closes with a brief petition of four lines repeated by the priest in behalf of the temple.

The five hymns, just reviewed, are all in the nature of a self-introduction of the gods and goddesses as powerful, incomparable beings. This is what one would expect. There is among gods as among kings a great deal of rivalry about prestige. The God must sound abroad his own glory. Beyond that, however, is the fact that in every religion a god must be, to a large extent, an unknown deity. His self-manifestations can be only occasional, and never clearly apprehended by man, so that when the god appears, man must necessarily ask: “Who art thou?” and the deity must reply, as did Ninib and Belit and Ishtar: “I am ...” These self-introductions of deity inevitably recall to the mind of the Old Testament student Yahwe’s introduction of himself to Moses in Exodus 3:6; and again the self-introduction of Yahwe that precedes the promulgation of the Ten Commandments in Exodus 20:2. Especially are they, however, suggestive of the repeated self-announcements of deity, that occur in almost every chapter of Isaiah 40-55. Here also we have again and again the rhetorical question, and the emphasis upon the power, the wisdom, the fame, and the incomparable status of Yahwe. Just a few of these hymnal lines are here quoted:

These and a great many similar lines have a good deal of the phraseology and the atmosphere of the Assyrian hymns of Belit and Ishtar, and in so far support the Babylonian origin of Isaiah 40-45, but there is in the Assyrian hymns no such clear relationship of the deity to history as is characteristic of the Hebrew hymns in Isaiah 40-45.

There remains of Assyrian hymns still to be recognized a small and distinct group in which deity is praised by man in the third person. One of these, Nergal No. 7, has been included among the Antiphonal hymns and already studied. That portion, which is in the third person is simply narrative, with many repetitions, telling of Nergal’s heroic attack upon the hostile land. It is mythological and epic material adapted to hymnal purposes. Similarly the hymn to Ramman No. 2 was included among the Antiphonal hymns, beginning as it does with fourteen lines spoken by man in praise of Ramman, and continuing with Enlil’s charge to Ramman in the next twelve lines. However, this hymn comes to its conclusion in the next four and last lines with the use of the third person, telling how Ramman obeyed the bidding of his father Enlil:

Beside this can be placed the fragment of eight lines, Ramman No. 1. Heaven and earth quake before Ramman’s anger. The gods flee to the heights and to the depths before the mighty god of the tempest. This hymn invites comparison with Psalm 29, the Hebrew hymn in praise of the “Voice of Yahwe”:

In Marduk No. 4, following the hymnal invocation of six lines addressed in the second person to the deity, there is a section of fifteen lines making up the rest of the hymn, and extolling the greatness of Marduk, especially his might in war. When he attacks, the heavens above and the earth beneath are troubled; the gods flee; his weapons flash forth and destroy mountains. However the hymn is not a narrative of any event. Though the language is of a myth, yet the poem is not in its nature an epic. It is recited not to inspire interest, but to arouse enthusiasm for the deity. It is thus, along with Ramman No. 1, more hymnal in character than the narrative portions in Nergal No. 7 and Ramman No. 2:

In the chapter on Assyrian Hymnal Introductions, it was observed that in Sin No. 3 and Sin No. 5 there were hymnal lines in praise of the divine word, addressed directly to deity in the second person:

In Marduk No. 5 there are five hymnal lines in praise of the word of deity, in four of which the third person is used, although one would 90 hesitate to say that the hymn ceases to be addressed to deity, or that the change of person is here particularly significant:

In the hymn to Nergal No. 7 there is a large hymnal passage in praise of the word of deity. It begins apparently with the last line on the obverse side of the tablet, in which the second person of the direct address to deity is used:

Unfortunately the first lines on the reverse side of the tablet are lost, but the lines which remain are all in the third person, and unlike the preceding hymn deity is not being directly addressed. We have here then the hymnal form which is characteristic of the Hebrew hymn of praise. It is however somewhat difficult to account for this use of the third person. Possibly it is because the word when once spoken has its independent existence, and cannot be recalled, but goes forth to exert its harmful or helpful influence. Consequently in thinking of the effects to be accomplished by Nergal’s word one can completely forget Nergal, since the word has left the god behind and goes on its own way, whither soever it was directed. It is to be noted that the effects of the word mentioned in this hymn are all harmful. There is no record of any magical ceremony or magical use of the word following the hymn, although the language of the hymn would almost seem to be introductory to such a use of the mighty word of Nergal. Possibly then it can be conjectured that we have actually here a genuine hymn in praise of the aweful word of deity. The hymn as preserved is as follows:

It has also been observed in the chapter on Hymnal Introductions, that in Nebo No. 1 there was a couplet, and in Ninib No. 1 there was a hymnal line, both in praise of the sanctuary, and both addressed in the second person to deity. Furthermore there is in the hymn to Marduk No. 4, reproduced above in this chapter a line in praise of the temple in Ekur:

Beyond this we have, however two hymnal fragments, which so far as they remain to us, are devoted to the praise of sanctuaries. The 92 first of these is Marduk No. 7:

The second fragment, hymn to Bel, No. 1, consists only of five lines, which unfortunately are not altogether intelligible. Apparently the sanctuary of Enlil is compared first to a mountain, whose peak reaches to the heavens, and then to a majestic wild ox stretched out in the mountains, whose horns glitter in the rays of the sun. These hymnal fragments recall the Old Testament psalms in praise of Zion, and perhaps especially Psalm 48:2:

The above small group of hymns are the only hymns or hymnal passages in which the third person is exclusively used. As has been seen, the great majority of Assyrian hymns employ the second person and are really only hymnal introductions to prayers. A small but notable group is made up of the self-laudations of the gods. On the other hand the vast majority of Hebrew hymns speak of Yahwe in the third person in their praise of him, and their praise is disinterested; it is not introductory to a petition. It is likewise significant that where Yahwe speaks in hymnal praise of himself in Isaiah 40-45, it is to convince despairing, doubting Israel of his intention and power to save Israel, and to use Israel in the fulfillment of his eternal purpose. Here again one might say that while the Assyrian deities haughtily and arrogantly proclaim their own greatness, seeking thereby only their own glory, Yahwe’s praise of himself is almost altogether disinterested, since his concern is to achieve salvation of Israel and the world. In the Hebrew sense of the word then, the genuine hymn is only beginning to emerge in Assyrian poetry.

Division III
A COMPARISON OF THE ASSYRIAN AND THE HEBREW HYMNS

Chapter IX
THE LITERARY FORM OF THE ASSYRIAN AND THE HEBREW HYMNS

The comparison of the Assyrian and the Hebrew hymns ought naturally to begin with the consideration of their literary form. This brings us to the first and most obvious distinctive mark of poetry in both literatures, the relatively uniform length of the lines in each poem. Wherever a line lengthens out unduly it is clear that there is a lapse into prose. A second phenomenon that meets the eye frequently in the Assyrian poems and even more often in the Hebrew psalms, is the falling of the line into two divisions:

Occasionally the lines in both Assyrian and Hebrew psalms fall into three divisions:

However the most conspicuous feature of both Assyrian and Hebrew poetry is the occurrence of two parallel lines in the distich or couplet. Parallelism may also occur between the parts of the line, and hence it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between the two half lines and the couplet, and between the line of three divisions and the tristich. In the Assyrian hymns, as in the Hebrew hymns, the most common form of parallelism is the synonymous, the second line practically repeating the thought of the first line:

Very common in the Assyrian hymns, but not so frequent in the Hebrew hymns is tautological parallelism, where the second line repeats the thought of the first line in almost the same words. The frequency of this form in the Assyrian hymns is most certainly in part due to the magical potency attached to the repetition of significant lines.

The synthetical parallelism, in which the second line continues the thought of the first line is relatively common in both Assyrian and Hebrew hymns:

It is one indication of the superior literary quality of the Hebrew hymns that antithetical parallelism, in which the thought of the second line is opposed to that of the first line, occurs quite frequently in the Hebrew hymns, and almost not at all in the Assyrian hymns:

Beyond the couplet, strophes of three, four, five, six, and more lines are common in the Assyrian hymns, even as in the Hebrew Psalter. Perhaps the fact that interests the Old Testament student most in the strophic arrangement is that the number of lines in the strophes in the same hymn is by no means always uniform. Accordingly if one may draw a conclusion from Assyrian usage for the Old Testament, the effort often so zealously made to restore by elimination of lines a uniform strophic arrangement, is a grievous error. Variety rather than uniformity was often the end sought.

Another characteristic feature of both Assyrian and Hebrew hymns is the occasional appearance of the refrain. This refrain does not however appear artistically at the end of the strophe, as in Psalm 99 where the refrain, “Holy is He,” is to be found at the end of verses 2, 5, 9, and probably ought to be inserted at the end of verse 7. Rather the refrain usually forms the second half of the individual lines for a succession of three, five, seven, ten, or more lines. The same hymn may employ a variety of refrains. The hymn to Ramman No. 3 has for the last two thirds of the first six lines:

Then for three lines it repeats only the last third of the refrain:

returning to the full refrain however for the tenth line. Then lines 16 to 20 have for the last third of the line the refrain:

while lines 21 to 25 have for the last third of the line the refrain:

In general this use of the refrain in the Assyrian hymns would seem to correspond to what we have in Psalm 115:9-11:

In a number of instances the refrain of the Assyrian hymn occurs in the first third or half of the line, and the occurrence of the double refrain is also frequent:

No such skill in the use of the double refrain is shown, however, as in Psalm 107.

Yet another feature common to Assyrian and Hebrew hymn is the prominence of the rhetorical question:

It has already been pointed out in a previous chapter, that the use of the refrain in the Assyrian hymns, as in the case of the Hebrew hymns, indicates antiphonal responses between priest and choir, and choir and choir. Likewise the hymns of both literatures have been seen to take on more decided liturgical character with the introduction of the divine pronouncement through the priest as in the Litany to Asshur and the second Psalm. Both literatures have the sanctuary hymn, and the processional and the recessional hymn. The most significant difference between the Assyrian hymn and the Hebrew hymn would seem to be that the former is usually addressed in the second person to deity, and is accordingly of the nature of prayer, while the Hebrew hymn is the response to the summons to praise deity, is expressed in the third person, and is more genuinely hymnal in character.

Chapter X
THE SUPREME GOD AMONG THE GODS

Having compared the Assyrian and Hebrew hymns, with reference to their external form, and the circumstances under which they were sung, it is now proper to examine more closely the actual contents of the hymns. The subject of all genuine hymns is God. It is an argument for the common nature of the Assyrian and Hebrew hymns that practically all the hymnal phrases can be classified under the following heads:

This classification enables us to study at one and the same time the phraseology and the content of the Assyrian and Hebrew hymns. It may be said at the outset, that there are practically no specific cases where literary dependence can be demonstrated, but, what is more important, there is a very striking similarity of phraseology, implying similar religious ideas. This phraseology of the Assyrian hymns has its value for the interpretation of the Hebrew hymns, and their content, and a like value for the study of the Hebrew religion.

In comparing the phraseology of the Assyrian and the Hebrew hymns, the most obvious difference is that the Assyrian hymns are addressed to many different deities, each with its own proper name, Shamash, Sin, Marduk, Ninib, and many others. The existence of the other gods is implied in some Hebrew hymns, but the Hebrew 101 hymnist never concedes to them an individual independent existence, much less a name. Furthermore, one meets everywhere in the Assyrian hymns the distinction of sex. There are husbands and wives, sons and daughters, among the gods:

One would expect that the god to whom the hymn is addressed would be regarded as the supreme God, but in some hymns his subordinate relationship to other gods is recognized:

The Assyrian refers altogether naturally to his deity as a god 102 among gods, and frequently ascribes to him only a relative degree of strength and power:

It is only when the Assyrian hymn applies to its deity the superlative degree, that it touches common ground with the Hebrew hymn. For both Assyrian and Hebrew worshippers praise their deity as the incomparable god. Such passages from Assyrian hymns are:

And some Hebrew hymns recognize the existence of the gods in asserting the absolute superiority of Yahwe:

Also the existence of many gods is implied in the rhetorical questions common to the Assyrian and Hebrew hymns. Assyrian:

Identical in form is the question addressed to Nergal:

Ishtar herself asks the question:

The question is followed by the answer in the following examples:

Biblical examples of such rhetorical questions are:

Moreover there is, for Assyrian, as for Hebrew, the council of the gods, in which one god is the supreme judge.

Furthermore, both in Assyrian and Biblical hymns, the gods themselves do homage to the highest god:

Yahwe, who is thus worshipped by the gods, can appropriately be called “God of gods and Lord of lords”:

The Assyrian hymn passes beyond the point where the deity is exalted above other gods:

to the point where the god alone is exalted:

Likewise the Hebrew hymn speaks of the exaltation of Yahwe and passes beyond the point where Yahwe is high above all gods.

to the point where Yahwe alone is exalted in the earth:

It was said above that certain Hebrew hymnal passages recognize the existence of other gods. It might have been pointed out there that one of those passages,

is followed by:

and Psalm 135:5:

is followed by 135:15:

Yet this may not be an outright denial of the existence of all gods, nor an interesting example of the retention of phraseology which the religion had outgrown. The Israel of most of the hymns was very much a nation among the nations. With feeling, at once intensely national and intensely religious, Israel poured its contempt upon idolatry, and declared that the nations had no god. On earth Yahwe is the supreme God, and in heaven in the heavenly court he reigns supreme, and the gods who are there, serve him and enhance his glory.

The Glory of His Name

Assyrian and Hebrew hymns are alike, in that both exalt the name of deity. For both the name of the god is great and glorious and to be feared. It is known in all the earth and is not to be forgotten. There seems to have been an element of mystery, possibly due to magic, attached to the name of the Assyrian deity.

And in this connection it is well to notice that Ishtar announces herself by several names:

Great and terrible is the name of the Assyrian and Hebrew deity.

Not only universal, but also eternal, is the fame of Assyrian and Hebrew deity:

It may be significant also, that, while the name of the Assyrian and the Hebrew deity is great and glorious and terrible, universally known and never to be forgotten, it is said only of the Hebrew deity, that his name is holy:

While both Assyrian and Hebrew hymns exalt the name of the deity, there is no passage in any Assyrian hymn, revealing such enthusiasm on the part of an individual, for the name of the god as Psalm 145:1b:

Nor is there any passage in an Assyrian hymn calling upon universal nature, sun, moon and stars, mountains, and hills, rain and snow, all living creatures, all men and women, old and young, kings and nations, to praise the name of God, as Psalm 148:13:

Chapter XI
THE SUPREME GOD IN HIS DWELLING PLACE

The Assyrians are known to readers of the Old Testament as worshippers of the hosts of heaven, and while their hymns represent them as adoring also the Atmospheric Gods, and furthermore finding Deity not only in the heights above, but also in the depths beneath, nevertheless their reverent gaze was most frequently turned skyward. Their gods were mainly gods of heaven, and were associated, at times almost to the point of identification, with the heavenly bodies. Thus the God Shamash bears the name of Sun, and is unmistakably and very closely associated with the solar orb:

Likewise Nusku is a solar deity:

Also Marduk:

The moon has its very worthy representative among the gods in the person of the great God Sin:

The evening star, the star which shines preëminent in the heavens is represented by two glorious goddesses, Ishtar and Sarpanitum:

Just as Shamash, Sin, and Ishtar are so closely associated with sun, moon, and evening star, so Ramman, in the two hymns written in his honor, is almost identified with the thunderstorm.

Yahwe is not identified, nor closely associated, in the Hebrew hymns, with any of the heavenly bodies, not even with the sun, but he, like the Assyrian deities, dwells in heaven, and his glory, as is theirs, is that of the stars. Of Yahwe it might have been said, as of Nergal and Ishtar:

Yahwe was not identified with sun, moon or stars. No more was he identified with the thunderstorm. ’Tis true, in Psalm 29 the thunder 110 is described as the voice of Yahwe, but while the tempest rages below, Yahwe sits exalted in heaven, the mighty God, who gives strength to his people, and blesses them with peace. It is the glory of the Hebrew religion, that its God has been released from all identification with nature’s forces and is lord in his universe. So he controls also the winds:

As gods of heaven, both the Assyrian deities and Yahwe are revered as lofty, exalted beings. Marduk is addressed as the one

To Ninib it is said:

And for Asshur the wish is expressed:

Similarly Yahwe is exalted:

Yahwe’s exaltation above the earth brings with it also exaltation over all nations:

So also Marduk’s exaltation has its significance for men:

Yahwe’s exaltation seems to be not only above the earth, but he is also highly exalted in the heavens:

Before the exalted heavens’ God, the Assyrian worshipper is reverent:

and as Heaven’s God, Yahwe is to be praised:

The Assyrian religion, in contrast to the Hebrew religion, finds God in the lower world, and glorifies the deity of the lower world:

She, who is goddess of heaven and earth is also goddess of the deep:

The Hebrew hymns have only the negative statements regarding Yahwe’s prestige in the lower world:

and the assertion of Psalm 139:8 that Yahwe the omnipresent is present also in Sheol.

The Supreme God in His Sanctuary

Although the Assyrian deities and Yahwe are gods of heaven, yet they take up their abode in earthly sanctuaries:

The sanctuary itself is venerated by Assyrian and Hebrew:

There is nothing in the Hebrew hymns to indicate that Yahwe has more than one sanctuary. This is due of course to the fact that the 113 Hebrew hymns are preserved in a collection, whose editors recognized only Jerusalem as a legitimate place of worship. On the other hand the Assyrian gods have usually several sanctuaries:

It is curious that the god should be addressed as the founder of cities and sanctuaries:

Apparently the Assyrian sanctuaries were thought to be as old as the world itself, for the erection and naming of the sanctuaries is mentioned in connection with the creation of the earth:

But of Yahwe it is said:

It is not forgotten in the Assyrian hymns, that the deity gives joy to city and temple:

The processional hymn to Marduk opens with the line:

Hebrew temple worship must also have been joyful, when the worshippers obeyed the exhortation, Psalm 100:2: “Serve Yahwe with gladness”; when they praised him “with trumpet sound,” “with psaltery and harp,” “with timbrel and dance,” “with stringed instruments” and “pipe” “with loud cymbals” and “high sounding cymbals,” Psalm 150. Distinctive of the Hebrew hymns is, as we would expect, the great prominence given to the praise of Yahwe in the temple:

Not only do Assyrian and Hebrew deity dwell in earthly sanctuaries, but their sanctuaries seem to have been alike situated on holy mountains:

Another reference to the holy mountain is found in Psalm 87:1

To be compared with the last two selections is the couplet from a hymn to Bel:

This couplet describes a temple of Bel which resembles a mountain. The name Great Mountain was also applied to Bel himself. Possibly the line of development was thus. The god dwells in the holy mountain. For that reason, the temple is built to resemble a mountain, and the name mountain passes over from the temple to the deity. At any rate, it is interesting to note that Yahwe also dwells in the holy mountain and was likewise called rock:

It is natural to pass from the sanctuary to the physical representation of the deity. This in the Assyrian hymns is frequently crass:

In a number of passages, the god takes the still crasser form of an animal. In Sin No. 5, line 19, it is the form of a horse:

In other passages, it is a bull or steer:

In the hymns proper, there is no such crass representation of Yahwe, but it is well to recall that Yahwe was not only represented by bull images at Bethel and Dan, but is referred to as the “Bull of Jacob.”

It is a stage higher in refinement, when the god is not represented as a naked demon, nor as a powerful animal, however majestic in its strength, but as a clothed being. Such a representation of the deity we have both in the Assyrian and the Hebrew hymns:

From out of such imagery as that cited in so many passages has come these two chaste references to Yahwe as clothed:

There is but one instance in the Assyrian Hymns, when the beauty of the god is the delight of the worshipper. This is somewhat akin to the feeling of the mystic:

Fruit which hath created itself, of lofty form beautiful to look upon, in whose being one cannot sufficiently state oneself. —Hymn to Sin No. 5.

There are no parallels to this among the biblical hymns but there are parallels among other psalms:

Homage was paid to the Assyrian deities by the bringing of offerings to their temples, and this fact of the offering of sacrifices, finds a place in the hymns:

A special distinction of Marduk’s is that:

The sacrifice, and especially the offering of wine, would favorably affect the disposition of the god:

On the other hand, the favorable disposition of the deity is manifested by his acceptance of the offering, and the proof of the magnanimity of the god finds its due place in the hymn:

It is curious that, just as the gods for whom the temples were built, were addressed as the builders of the temples, so the gods to whom sacrifices were offered, were addressed as those who maintained the offering of sacrifices. Doubtless the sacrifices of the temples had come to be regarded as in themselves absolutely essential to the established order, and the gods, as the givers of the earth’s products, became thus the patrons of the sacrifices.

Nusku as the fire god is particularly essential to the offering of sacrifices:

It is surely very significant that all this is absent from the Hebrew hymns. There is but one single reference to a sacrifice.

What the Hebrews in their hymns bring to Yahwe is an offering of praise for:

and the individual devoutly says:

and a temple congregation says:

Sacrifice had its place, and on that great day of Yahwe’s final triumph, the kindreds of the peoples are called upon to bring an offering (Psalm 96:8), but this seems to be only incidental to their acknowledgment in Yahwe’s temple of his universal lordship. I am assuming that the glory and strength of Psalm 96:7:

are to be understood in the spiritual rather than the material sense, as elsewhere the hymns only call for spiritual homage to Yahwe:

The Hebrew hymn does not praise Yahwe as the one who establishes sacrifice, nor as the God who accepts sacrifice. Although sacrifices continued to be offered in the temple, the hymn, as a hymn, transcends all formalism. The hymn is the expression of enthusiasm for Yahwe, the exalted and great God whom all the earth is to acknowledge, and conversely, it may perhaps be said that only such a magnificent conception of deity as the Hebrews had could produce such hymns.

Chapter XII
THE SUPREME GOD AS CREATOR

The ordinary person is very likely to limit the thought of God as creator to the monotheistic religions. However the religious imagination is by no means controlled by logical reasoning. The problem of creation, in some form or other, has its fascination even for the primitive mind, and the conception of God as creator is not foreign to the religious thinking of polytheistic religions. Accordingly, although the Assyrian deities never completely succeeded in emancipating themselves from close association with heavenly bodies and atmospheric forces, yet some of them did win for themselves the significant title of creator:

In the preceding couplet one might expect instead of “builder of the mountains,” “builder of the earth,” but the second line would seem to suggest that the mountains were the abodes of the gods, and therefore the creation of mountains and gods is associated together. The following couplet, while not affirming explicitly the act of creation by deity, seems nevertheless to presuppose it:

Turning to the Hebrew hymns, there is a great variety of passages, in which Yahwe is referred to as creator:

The sun, moon and stars, the highest heaven and the waters above the heavens are called upon to praise Yahwe their creator:

He is also the creator of the sea:

Here may be inserted the only reference in an Assyrian hymn to the creation of the sea:

Beside this should be placed the somewhat similar statement in Psalm 104:9:

Once Yahwe is praised as the creator of the sea and the land:

Twice Yahwe is referred to as “maker of heaven and earth”:

In Psalm 33:6-9, the creation of the heavens, the sea, the earth are referred to in order and Psalm 104:2-9 treats of the creation of the heavens, the earth and the sea, singling out that which is especially marvelous in the creation of each. As for the heavens, it is that the beams of heaven’s chambers are laid upon the waters of the heavenly ocean. As for the earth, it is that its foundations are so surely fixed that it is immovable; and as for the sea, it is that its unruly waters should be imprisoned within their bounds and restrained from overflowing the earth.

The Assyrian deity is also credited with the creation of gods and goddesses:

This creation is probably to be understood in the physical sense, for which there are many parallels in polytheistic religions, but no parallel in the Hebrew hymns. On the other hand the phraseology of the following passages:

is entirely similar to Hebrew usage. Here the creation of God and King is equivalent to nomination or appointment. Similarly Yahwe appoints a king over Zion:

and in Psalm 82:6, although it is not said that Yahwe creates or begets the gods, yet it seems to be his fiat, his decree that calls them into being:

It is also his decree that destroys them:

It is a question of secondary importance whether the Elohim is here to be interpreted as actually gods, or judges. In either case, there is the similarity in Assyrian and Hebrew usage.

Finally the creation of mankind is ascribed to the Assyrian deity, and by this is apparently meant the creation of the entire human family:

The Hebrew hymnists also believed that Yahwe created mankind, and they marvelled at the perfection of man’s body:

They marvelled also at his supreme place in the universe:

It is significant, however, that Hebrew hymnal enthusiasm is not so much stirred by the thought of Yahwe as the creator of mankind, as it is by the thought of him as the creator of the Hebrew nation:

This conviction, that Yahwe was the creator of their nation, was in no small degree both cause and result of the powerful national and religious enthusiasm of the Hebrews, and of that mighty religious experience, which finds so full and so free expression in the Hebrew hymns.

The Supreme God as the God of Nature

The Assyrian and Hebrew hymnal literature which praise the deity as the creator of the world, are also concerned with the deity as the god of nature. One prominent function of both Assyrian and Hebrew deity was to maintain the food supply. Assyrian and Hebrew God, give the increase of the soil:

The Assyrian deity of the hymnist also provides food for the gods, 125 probably through the sacrifices, which in turn were dependent upon the crops:

Yahwe provides food not only for man but also for the beasts:

It may be remarked that these verses reveal a close bond of sympathy between the Hebrew God and the lower animals. This finds fullest expression in Psalm 104 where the brooks in the mountains afford drink for the wild beasts, and the birds and the cedars of Lebanon avail for birds’ nests, the high mountains for the wild goats and the rocks for the conies.

While the Assyrian hymns do not happen to speak of the god as providing food for the animals, yet there is one hymnal passage which reveals regard for the lower animals and perhaps also suggests a bond of sympathy between deity and the lower animals:

The fertility of the soil is directly due to the act of the deity in sending rain:

The Hebrew poet remarks that the rain comes from the clouds, and he has also observed that lightning is followed by rain. It is Yahwe:

Likewise the fertility occasioned by the rivers and streams is due, in the first place, to the deities which have opened the springs, and guided the streams down into the plains:

Yahwe also can open the spring:

and Yahwe is also the guide of the streams:

In addition to sending rain from heaven and causing streams to irrigate the plains, the Assyrian deity also sows the seed:

The work of the deities in nature as elsewhere need not always be done immediately, but can be accomplished by the spoken word. Assyrian and Hebrew hymns alike exalt the power of the divine word. The voice that speaks the word is a voice of thunder.

The word of God is irresistible:

The word once spoken is not to be recalled. It is unalterable. It goes on to do that work which the deity hath pleased:

The word of the deity has its mysterious independent existence:

The word exerts its power in nature:

More wonderful still, the word has ethical power:

The word also exerts its destructive power in nature:

The word may bring disaster to people and to lands:

Likewise the word of Yahwe has in the biblical hymns its independent existence. This is apparent in Psalm 29, although in this 129 instance it is the thunder, as the voice of the deity, to which the devastation in nature is attributed. Yahwe’s word exerts its power in nature; causing the snow and ice to form, and again causing them to disappear:

For the Hebrew, the power of Yahwe’s word is manifested supremely in the creation of the world:

Chapter XIII
THE SUPREME GOD AS WISE, POWERFUL, MERCIFUL

From the works of God in creation and nature, the hymnist passes readily and naturally to the thought of God’s wisdom. The Assyrian hymns in many passages extol the wisdom of God, but wisdom, as one might expect in a polytheistic religion is attributed to the deities in varying degree. Some passages almost seem to appraise the god’s intellectual capacity:

Very similar to this in the juxtaposition of power and wisdom is Psalm 147:5:

The knowledge of the god is due in part to the fact that from his place of vantage in heaven he is able to observe all things:

Very similarly it is said of Yahwe:

But the knowledge of some Assyrian deities is deeper than that, for the gods read the omens and so learn the fates of men and nations for the years to come:

While the gods, in some passages, are thought of as simply reading the signs, in others, they actually have in their hands the determination of destinies:

Yahwe is also the determiner of destiny, but he is a rational power behind events. It is the plan of his own heart that he carries into effect:

Since the events of earth are influenced so largely by the earthly sovereign, it is altogether natural that the deity’s determination of destinies should have special application to the case of the king. This makes it easier to understand how the Hebrews looked to Yahwe to set upon the throne of Zion an ideal king. (Psalms 2, 110, and 72.) However magical the Assyrian conception of the determination of fate, the Assyrian deities are in some passages hailed as omniscient:

The wisdom of the gods is so deep that it cannot be easily fathomed and understood:

With these passages may be compared:

It is especially in the works of Yahwe that the Hebrew finds His wisdom revealed:

The gods thus possessed of wisdom and knowledge are counsellors:

Reading these words, one hears again the voice of the great prophet of the Babylonian exile. He seems to scoff at this feature of polytheism, just as elsewhere he scoffs at idolatry:

Counsel is given to gods and men by means of oracles:

One must remark here the complete absence from the biblical hymns of any reference to Yahwe as the giver of oracles. When one remembers how frequently, in the historical narratives, resort is had to the deity for disclosure of the future, its absence from the hymns seems significant. The hymns are curiously silent about Yahwe as the counsellor of men, although testimony is given in the non-hymnal psalms to the attainment of spiritual insight in the temple.

For the author of Psalm 19:8-15, wisdom and knowledge are stored up in the law. There may have been a certain reaction against seeking guidance of the deity because of Assyrian magical practises, but the fact is that the hymns are less concerned with God’s plans for the individual than they are with his eternal plan for his people.

The Supreme God as Powerful

The wise God is also the powerful God. The Assyrian deities, as well as Yahwe, are preëminently war gods. This fact is established by the astonishingly large number of references to their war activities. I will first cite examples to establish the fact that they are warriors:

There are very many references to Yahwe as warrior. His warlike titles are given in Psalm 24:

The Assyrian deity may be the commander of an army:

Yahwe also has his army:

Yahwe’s momentous title is:

Due homage is paid to the strength and prowess of the deity:

Likewise Yahwe is, to repeat again the words of Psalm 24:

Yahwe’s strength is in his arm:

The attack of the war god is as the onrush of a terrible electric storm:

Heaven and earth are shaken. The mountains are ablaze with flame. The ocean depths are stirred up:

The sea also is affected by the attack of the war god:

One can compare with this:

The attack of the war god is of course irresistible and his enemies suffer defeat. The great Marduk not even the gods can oppose:

Similarly Yahwe is irresistible:

In the hymns a good deal of attention is paid to the weapon of the god. It may be a “bow”:

And this may mean that on the production of his terrible weapon, the enemy surrenders and the storm ceases, just as when Yahwe hangs up his bow after the conflict of the thunderstorm, one knows that the rain is over, and that there will be no flood. Or the weapon may be a lance:

or more terrible still a dragon:

Yahwe certainly wields an effective weapon:

Both Assyrian and Hebrew war god use fire as a weapon:

The Assyrian hymns emphasize the impossibility of escape from the sight and power of the god:

There is an incomparably finer conception of god’s omnipresence and omniscience in Psalm 139:7-12:

The Supreme God as Merciful

The wise and powerful God is also the merciful one, for mercy is an attribute of the Assyrian deities as of Yahwe:

The divine mercy is extended to the unfortunate, the oppressed the weak and the aged, the bowed down and the fallen, the obedient and those who fear the deity:

Assyrian usage supports the view that the poor and the needy of the psalms, and the barren woman of Psalm 113 are not to be interpreted 141 as the Jewish nation, but as individuals. Yahwe, says the Psalmist, is the incomparable God, in that from his glorious seat in the heavens he bendeth low to help the needy upon the earth,

The Hebrew hymn is, if anything more concrete than the Assyrian, in that it mentions not only the barren wife as above (one thinks of Sarah, Rachel, Hannah), but also the widow and the orphan and the sojourner, as special objects of the deity’s compassion.

Yahwe’s mercy, as was that of the Assyrian deity, is extended in a special degree to those who keep his covenant and obey his commandments:

Marvellously tender is the quality of that mercy extended to the exiles returning to Jerusalem:

There are many phrases in the Assyrian hymns to express the compassion of the deity for the sick and his power to heal. Two forms of expression are particularly interesting. The sick man is spoken of as one who is bound, his cure as the loosing of a captive; and a person extremely sick is spoken of as already dead, so that his cure is equivalent to the bringing of the dead back to life:

Although the Hebrews in sickness prayed unto Yahwe and were cured Psalms 86:13, 16; 31; 38, yet there are few ascriptions of praise to Yahwe as the healer of disease. This may be because the cure of sickness was apt to be so largely a matter of magic:

In both the Assyrian and Hebrew hymns there are a few references to the deity as preserving life:

The next two passages refer to Yahwe’s protection in time of famine and war:

There are in the Assyrian hymns a number of examples of the god’s mercy in forgiving sin:

Just as there were few references in the biblical hymns to Yahwe as healing sickness, so there are astonishingly few references to him as forgiving sin. In fact there are but two, and they are both found in an individual hymn:

The mercy of the God is sometimes attested by the titles which he bears. Both in the Assyrian and the biblical hymns, the deity is called Shepherd. In the Assyrian hymns, the god is shepherd not only of the Assyrians, but of all peoples and of all living things:

The Hebrew God is Shepherd of Israel, his own peculiar people.

The Assyrian deity is frequently addressed in the hymns as father. 145 Probably it originally meant father of the gods in a physical sense. In some instances it may have meant no more than the supreme god:

The title of Father is also assigned to the deity as creator of men and all living things:

With the same significance the deity is addressed in the following couplet:

Religious meaning is put into the term in the following two examples:

Yahwe is elsewhere in the Old Testament the father of the Hebrew nation (Hosea), and the father of the Messiah (Psalm 2), but in the hymns he is not actually called father, though his compassion is likened to that of a father for his children.

Chapter XIV
THE SUPREME GOD AS KING AND JUDGE

The final significance and supreme importance of deity for Assyrian and Hebrew hymnists is perhaps best summed up in the words: “King” and “Judge.” To be sure the person in sickness of any kind could and did have recourse to the god who had wisdom and power to work deliverance. But, even as the life of the Assyrian and Hebrew peoples revolved around the earthly king upon his throne, so they sought for authority and leadership, protection and prosperity, in a heavenly king, whose right it was to reign in heaven and on earth. It is not strange then that many Assyrian hymns do homage to the deity as, “King of heaven and earth”:

Here may be placed the corresponding title of the goddess:

There are three references to the throne:

Twice the sceptre is referred to:

While the god’s throne is in heaven, it is his sovereignty over the earth which the hymnist has especially in mind:

The “king of heaven and earth” is at the same time:

Kingship may be entrusted to the particular deity by the supreme god:

On the other hand, a certain measure of independence of the supreme god seems to be assigned in the same two hymns to the two deities:

There are two statements related to the quality of the kingly rule:

“King of kings” occurs only here in the Assyrian hymns. It is a title that would come naturally into use, where city kings were compelled to pay homage to royal founders of empires.

Turning to the biblical hymns, it is noteworthy that, while Yahwe is spoken of several times as the “Maker of heaven and earth,” he is 148 no where called “King of heaven and earth.” This would be such an appropriate title for Yahwe that its absence tends to indicate that there was little verbal borrowing of Hebrew hymnists from the Assyrian. Reference is made however in the biblical hymns to Yahwe’s throne:

which is quite similar to the following passage from Hymn to Sin No. 2:

In both cases the throne (1) is in the heavens, (2) is established by deity himself, (3) is the seat from which wide sovereignty is exerted over the earth.

One is tempted to translate this: “He sitteth upon the throne of his sanctuary,” which is parallel to the following passage from Hymn to Ninib No. 7:

This translation is supported by Psalm 150:1: “Praise God in his sanctuary.” There are two references to the throne in the biblical hymns:

In both Assyrian and Hebrew hymns, the ascension to the throne is referred to as a joyous occasion:

There is no reference to the sceptre as in Yahwe’s hand, in the biblical hymns, although the sceptre is in the hands of the Messiah. (Psalm 2) As in the Assyrian hymns, emphasis is placed upon Yahwe’s sovereignty over the earth:

There can be no question of Yahwe’s subordination to any other God or accepting sovereignty from any other deity:

Sin has been given by Bel: “a sceptre for remote days,” but:

Not only will Yahwe reign forever, but Yahwe has been reigning from the beginning:

It is perhaps important for Old Testament scholarship to bear in mind that the conception of the deity as king is so very old, and that 150 it is present in the biblical hymns which can not be classed as eschatological. It is in Psalm 103 that one finds the words:

and in Psalm 95 which can not be called eschatological, we have:

while in Psalm 48:3, Jerusalem is the: “City of the great king.” While therefore “Yahwe is King” is actually the opening line of several eschatological hymns, and while those hymns exult in the complete triumph of Yahwe yet it is only the completeness of the triumph that distinguishes in the matter of kingship the eschatological hymns from the others.

The Supreme God as Judge

Kingship also implied Judgeship, the latter word having particular application to the rendering of judicial decisions or the achievement of justice for the oppressed. The actual word judge occurs occasionally in the Assyrian hymns as a title of the deity:

Judgeship in the Assyrian hymns implies authority. The deity as judge determines the course of events in the world:

The judgeship of the Assyrian god has also ethical content:

Consequently the god intervenes in earthly affairs to overthrow wickedness and establish righteousness:

Yahwe also exercised judgeship. The idea of kingship surely involves that of judgeship with it. And as king it is said of Yahwe:

Yahwe overthrows wickedness and establishes righteousness:

Psalm 11 says of Yahwe as king:

Yahwe’s act of judgment, therefore, is equivalent to the deliverance of his own people:

Yahwe is thus continually judge of his people, but the supreme manifestation of his justice will be seen in the eschatological judgment:

The rendering of justice by the Assyrian deity is contemplated by his worshippers with joy:

As Yahwe’s final act of judgment is so comprehensive and momentous, the joy of Yahwe’s people is immeasurably greater than the enthusiasm of military victory. It is interesting to recall that one of the earliest, if not the earliest of all the Hebrew hymns, that sung by Miriam and the Hebrew women, celebrated a victory:

It is the same strong national spirit that flames forth in confidence of the great final victory in Psalm 68:2, 4:

While Yahwe’s victory has primary significance for Israel:

Yet the whole earth will rejoice when Yahwe cometh to judge the earth:

It is important to bear in mind that the conception of God as judge, even as the conception of God as king, is very old, and that Yahwe appears as king and judge in hymns that are not eschatological. It is only when religious faith extends Yahwe’s kingship and judgeship to the whole world, and conceives of Yahwe as triumphantly transforming the world in accordance with justice and truth, that the conception of Yahwe as Judge becomes eschatological.

Chapter XV
CONCLUSION

It is now universally recognized by scholars that the Hebrew nation came late upon the stage of history, and that when the Hebrew Bedouin passed over out of the desert into the land of Canaan, they entered a land that had already experienced millenniums of civilization. In successive decades and centuries the Hebrew conquerors took over not only the land with its walled cities and its cultivated fields, but they took over also the land’s sanctuaries, and in large measure its religious and moral ideas.

One civilization among others that exerted very great influence for many centuries over Canaan came from the Tigris Euphrates valley. It brought to Canaan its language, its literary forms, its myths and legends, its legal statutes; it brought also in some degree the knowledge of its gods, and the hymns and prayers with which those gods were worshipped. The Hebrews were inevitably directly and indirectly influenced by Assyrian culture and religion.

It is of some importance to recognize, although the fact is by no means surprising, that the situations in life out of which the hymnal literatures grew were quite similar in Assyria and in Israel. Both peoples had a certain number of hymns, which can best be characterized as Nature hymns; but both peoples had also hymns which belong very clearly to the sanctuary. Some of these are processional hymns: the procession bringing the god to his sanctuary as in Psalm 24 and Hymn to Marduk No. 13; or the procession entering the sanctuary to bring gifts to the god as in Psalm 95 and the Hymn to Enlil; or the procession passing out from the sanctuary in solemn procession through the sacred city as in Psalm 48 and a number of the Assyrian hymns. The great majority of hymns, however in both literatures, just as one would expect, offer praise to the deity in the sanctuary.

Not only is the background of the hymns relatively similar in both civilizations, but the principal features of Hebrew poetry, the rhythm, the uniform length of lines, parallelism, arrangement in strophes, the rhetorical question, the refrain, the antiphonal responses, the introduction 155 into the hymn of the divine oracle, all belong to the literature of the older civilization. Israel did not invent, but rather found already in existence, its literary forms.

Moreover Israel undoubtedly found in the older civilization much of its hymnal phraseology and many of its basic religious ideas. The conception of God as creator of heaven and earth did not first emerge with Israelitic monotheism, but is expressed in more than one Assyrian hymn. The thought of God as king, and as exerting authority above and below, did not wait for the establishment of the Israelitic monarchy under Saul, David, and Solomon, but was familiar to the Assyrian hymnist. Certainly the thought of the God of heaven, as making his earthy dwelling in a sacred sanctuary on holy ground, is many centuries older than Solomon’s temple. Finally the conception of God as wise, powerful, righteous, and merciful found frequent expression in the Assyrian hymns long before the Hebrews attributed those attributes to Yahwe.

However, this certainly does not mean that the Hebrews were merely passive recipients of Assyrian Culture. They did obviously take over certain literary forms and devices, but they created a new and distinct type of hymn, which begins and ends with the exhortation to praise Yahwe. What is even more important Hebrew genius has employed such simplicity, variety, beauty, and power of expression as to create such masterpieces of literature as Psalms 8; 24; 29; 47; 67; 100; 96 and 150.

Again, Israel did undoubtedly take over, as has been indicated, certain basic conceptions of God, but Hebrew religious genius purified and exalted those conceptions. The Assyrian could conceive of one god as supreme among the gods; the Hebrew came to think of Yahwe as the only God, the altogether Spiritual Being, freed from the contamination of polytheism. The Assyrian exalted his god to the high heavens; the Hebrew emancipated Yahwe from any possibility of identification with sun, moon, or star, or any natural force. The Assyrian attributed to his god great power to bless or curse; the Hebrew attributed power to Yahwe, but dissociated him from all magical practise. The Assyrian does indeed ascribe to his god righteousness and mercy, but the Hebrew makes righteousness and mercy the essential attributes of Yahwe. In a word the hymnists of Israel at 156 their highest and best reflect the influence of the prophets, to which there was nothing comparable in Assyria.

One very important fact to be recognized is the emergence or development of the genuine hymn in Israel. It has been suggested that the great majority of so called Assyrian hymns are really only hymnal introductions to prayers or ceremonies; and furthermore that there may well be a line of development from the hymnal introduction to the independent hymn. There are two examples of hymnal introductions in the Old Testament Psalter, Psalms 89 and 144; and there is some justification for selecting Psalms 104 and 8 as hymns which represent the completion of the process of development. Praise has thus attained to a much greater place in the Hebrew religion than in the religion of Assyria. Praise is no longer subordinate to any other goal; it has become an end in itself, profitable to man, and pleasing to God.

The Hebrew religion carries the hymn to its highest pitch of development in the eschatological hymn, which is sung in anticipation of Yahwe’s complete and final triumph upon earth. The eschatological hymn owes its origin to the strong national spirit of the Hebrews, the strength of their conviction that a moral order exists in the world, and their faith in Yahwe as the wise and good, and powerful God who will bring justice and righteousness to triumph in the earth. There was in Assyria also, as we have seen, the thought of god as exalted king, but the Assyrians never attained to the conception of a god establishing complete and final ethical sovereignty over the earth.

The study of the Assyrian psalms has value for the Old Testament student in widening his field of knowledge, and thus saving him from the danger of setting up false standards. It is enlightening for him to observe in the Assyrian hymns the very frequent fact of irregularity, in the length of lines, in the number of lines in the strophe, in the type of parallelism employed. This suggests that often it may be variety and not uniformity that the poet is seeking, and that extreme caution ought to be observed in altering the Hebrew text, to make it conform to a Western conception of order and regularity.

One is impressed also by the prominence of the individual in the Assyrian hymn, and in the Assyrian cult, and is thus warned against the highly artificial assumption that the individual of the Hebrew 157 psalms is a personification of the Hebrew nation. The individual may well have played a much larger part in the early religion of Israel than has been commonly supposed.

The study of the Assyrian hymns will have value at various other points. The consideration of the place of the refrains, the antiphonal renderings, the divine oracles will help us to understand the use of the hymn in the Hebrew cult. Acquaintance with the Assyrian hymnal phraseology will undoubtedly be of assistance in the interpretation and clearer understanding of many phrases in the Hebrew hymns. The Assyrian hymns make however their indispensable contribution in that practically all the religious ideas of the Hebrew hymns exist in cruder form in the Assyrian hymns. They help us to reconstruct the polytheistic background of the Hebrew religion. They leave us with a clearer perception that Yahwe was primarily a god of heaven, and with a fuller knowledge of just what that means. They help us to understand the prominence given to the attributes of Yahwe as a mighty god of war. They prove the antiquity of the conception of God as king and judge, shepherd and father. They reflect crude and crass ideas of the divine wisdom, power, and mercy. Against the background of the Assyrian hymns one gains a juster appreciation of the developed Hebrew doctrine of God, the omnipresent, the omniscient, the omnipotent, whose eternal plan is to be fulfilled, who will cause truth and righteousness to prevail in the earth, who is to be universally and eternally adored.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

TEXTS AND TRANSLATIONS OF ASSYRIAN HYMNS

Hymns to Shamash

1. Rawlinson, Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia, IV: 2, 28 No. 1; translated by Jastrow, Die Religion Babyloniens und Assyriens, I, 426; and by Fossey, La Magie Assyrienne, No. 30. It is a hymn of fourteen lines, introducing a petition to Shamash for the healing of the king. The first two lines of the obverse and reverse sides of the tablet are missing.

2. R. IV: 2, 20 No. 2, translated by Jastrow, I, 427. There remain only the first five lines of a hymn, introducing a prayer to Shamash at the rising of the sun.

3. R. V, 50; translated by Jastrow, I, 428; by Zimmern, Babylonische Hymnen und Gebete in Auswahl, Der Alte Orient, 1905, page 15; and by Fossey, La Magie Assyrienne, No. 42. It is a hymn of eleven lines, introducing a petition to Shamash for the freeing of the king from the ban resting upon him, the prayer being offered at sunrise.

4. Abel-Winckler, Keilschrifttexte, pages 59 to 60; translated by Jastrow, I, 429. It is a hymn of twelve lines addressed to Shamash at sunset, wishing the God a safe return and glad welcome to his home from Ea his wife.

5. R. IV: 2, 19 No. 2; translated by Jastrow, I, 429; and by Zimmern, Der Alte Orient, 1905, page 15. It is a hymn of ten lines addressed to Shamash at sunrise. After this hymnal section the poem goes on to describe how the gods inhale the odor of the sacrifice and refresh themselves with the “food of heaven.” This suggests that the rising of the sun was the signal for the offering of sacrifice and the praise of Shamash, even as it was also the favorable moment for the banning of the powers of darkness which troubled men. (See Jastrow, I, 430.)

6. Craig, Assyrian and Babylonian Religious Texts, II, 3; also Gray, The Shamash Religious Texts, IV; translated by Jastrow II, 72; by Zimmern, Der Alte Orient, 1905, page 15; by Martin, Textes religieux Assyriens et Babyloniens, pages 14-26. It is a hymn of six lines, followed by a prayer, in which an individual petitions for release from the ban occasioning his sickness.

7. Gray, The Shamash Religious Texts, pages 9-23; translated by Gray; also by Jastrow, I, 432. It is a hymn, complete in four columns of four hundred and twenty lines, and is entirely free from any reference to incantation.

Hymns to Sin

1. Published and translated by Perry, Hymnen und Gebete an Sin (Leipz. Sem. Studien, 1907); by King, Babylonian Magic and Sorcery (London 1896); by Combe, Histoire du Culte de Sin (Paris 1908). It is a hymn of eleven lines introducing a petition of sixteen lines, in which the king, on an occasion of an eclipse of the moon, requests an oracle promising deliverance from the evil which has befallen his palace and land. It is addressed to Sin in the second person.

2. Published and translated by Perry and Combe. It gives the first fourteen lines of a hymnal introduction to prayer, and then breaks off. It is addressed to Sin in the second person.

3. Published and translated by Perry. It is a hymn of twenty-one lines with many repetitions. The last three lines of Perry No. 3, form the first four lines of Perry No. 4, the two apparently forming one hymn. Of No. 4 some nineteen lines are preserved, the last lines of the obverse and reverse being missing and other lines damaged. It is addressed to Sin in the second person.

4. Published and translated by Perry, King, and Combe. It is a hymn of eleven lines, introducing a prayer of fourteen lines seeking the favor of Sin. It is in the second person. The prayer contains the lament and petition of an individual who feels that his god is angry with him and afflicting him.

5. Published by Rawlinson IV, 5; also by Perry; and Combe: translated by Jastrow, I, 436; by Zimmern, Der Alte Orient, page II, 1905; by Perry; by Combe; by Ungnad in Gressmann, Altorientalische Texte und Bilder, page 80; by Rogers, Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Testament, page 141. It is a hymn of thirty-nine lines, introducing a petition nine lines in length for a temple of the god Sin. It is addressed in the second person to Sin, and was probably recited or sung at the full moon festival.

Hymns to Nebo

1. Published and translated by King, Babylonian Magic, No. 22; also translated by Jastrow, I, 445. It contains eight lines of invocation, followed by the petition at much greater length of an individual, requesting healing of his disease, favorable dreams, and the support of his god.

2. R. IV: 2, 20 No. 3; translated by Jastrow, I, 447. It is a fragment, giving ten lines of a hymn in couplets, of which the second line largely repeats the preceding line.

Hymns to Ninib

1. Published and translated by King, Babylonian Magic, No. 2; translated by Jastrow, I, 448. The first fourteen lines are addressed to the god in epithets of praise. In the lines which follow an individual reminds the god of his sacrifice, and pleads for forgiveness of his sin and the favor of the god.

2. Transliterated and translated by Jensen, Kosmologie der Babylonier, pages 470-472; also translated by Jastrow, I, 449. It is an hymnal introduction to prayer, twelve lines in length.

3. Kouyunjik Collection, 2864, 1-22; published and translated by Hrozny, Sumerisch-babylonische Mythen von dem Gotte Ninrag in Mitteilungen der vorderasiatischen Gesellschaft, 1903. It is a hymn addressed in the second person to Ninib, of which unfortunately only twelve lines are preserved, and of these no single line is complete. The hymn is composed in couplets the second line being a response to the first.

4. K 8531 and Rm 126; published and translated by Hrozny; translated by Jastrow, I, 455. Here we have an address of the God Nusku to the God Ninib, of which the first seven lines are epithets of praise, which are then followed by a petition that the anger of the God may abate, and that he be honored by the great God.

5. K 4829; published and translated by Hrozny; translated by Jastrow, I, 459. It is a hymn of fourteen lines, in which Ninib praises his own power.

6. R. II, 19 No. 2; published and translated by Hrozny; translated by Jastrow, I, 460. This is a hymn of thirteen lines in which the God Ninib sings his own praise.

7. Published and translated by Hrozny; translated by Jastrow, I, 463. This is a hymnal composition of thirty lines in the course of which the god Sharur addresses Ninib with hymnal praises.

Hymns to Nergal

1. Published and translated by King, Babylonian Magic, No. 27; translated by Jastrow, I, 467; also by Böllenrücher, Gebete und Hymnen an Nergal, No. 1. The first ten lines constitute a hymnal introduction to the prayer that follows. Lines 11-13 are a lament, lines 14-23 a petition, and line 24 a vow.

2. Published and translated by Böllenrücher, Gebete und Hymnen an Nergal No. 2; also by King, Babylonian Magic, No. 46; translated by Jastrow, I, 471. Nine lines of praise are addressed to the god, when the tablet breaks off.

3. Published and translated by Böllenrücher, Gebete und Hymnen an Nergal No. 3. The beginning and end of the hymn are missing. Of the twelve lines remaining no single line is complete.

4. R. IV: 2, 26 No. 1; published and translated by Böllenrücher, No. 4; translated by Jastrow, I, 470. Only the first ten lines of this hymn are preserved. For the first eight lines, the second half line is a refrain.

5. R. IV: 2, 24 No. 1; published and translated by Böllenrücher, No. 5; translated by Jastrow, I, 469. Of this hymn thirty-eight lines are preserved and are so arranged in couplets that the first line gives a title or attribute of the deity, while the second lines begin with the words: “God Nergal” and repeat the first words of the preceding line. It is thus a hymn with responses, made probably by priest and choir.

6. Published by Craig, Zeitschrift für Assyriologie, X, 276; Published and translated by Böllenrücher, No. 6. The hymn is divided into two parts. The first part of some forty lines is addressed directly to the god. Of these forty lines there are eleven couplets, of which the first half lines make a double refrain. The second half of the hymn is in praise of the word of the god. Thirteen lines begin with, “His word.” The entire hymn is antiphonal in character.

7. R. IV: 2, 30 No. 1; Haupt, Akkadisch-Sumerische Keilschrifttexte, No. 20; published and translated by Böllenrücher, No. 7; translated by Jastrow, I, 478. The first fourteen lines of the hymn are in narrative style, praising the attack of Nergal upon the hostile land. After a gap, where some lines are missing, there are twenty-one lines of praise addressed directly to the god in the second person.

8. K 9880; published and translated by Böllenrücher, No. 8; translated by Jastrow, I, 477. It is an individual hymn, addressed directly to Nergal, of which after the twelfth line the tablet breaks off.

Hymns to Adad

1. R. IV: 2, 28 No. 2; transliterated and translated by Strong, Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, XX, 161; translated by Jastrow, I, 482. It is a fragment of nine lines of a hymn praising in the third person of the verb the power of Adad.

2. Transliterated and translated by Langdon, Sumerian and Babylonian Hymns, pages 280-283; also by Rogers, Cuneiform Parallels, page 147; also by Ungnad in Gressmann, Altorientalische Texte, pages 83f. It is characterized by Langdon, Rogers, and 165 Ungnad as a hymn. It includes an invocation to the god of ten lines, a hymn proper of four lines, an address of Enlil to Ramman of ten lines and a narrative section of four lines.

3. Transliterated and translated by King, Babylonian Magic, No. 21. It is a fragment of a hymn, containing nine broken lines.

Hymns to Nusku

1. R. IV: 2, No. 3; translated by Jastrow, I, 487. It is a short hymnal introduction of eight lines, little more than an invocation to the god.

2. Craig, Assyrian and Babylonian Religious Texts, I, plate 35; translated by Jastrow, I, 487. After nineteen lines the text breaks off. The nineteen lines are of the nature of an invocation.

3. Tallquist, Die assyrische Beschworungsserie, Maklu II, pages 1-17; translated by Jastrow, I, 297. It is a hymnal introduction of eleven lines, addressed directly to the god, and followed by an individual’s petition in seven lines for the destruction of those whose witchcraft was afflicting him.

Hymns to Bel

1. R. IV: 2, 27 No. 2; translated by Jastrow, I, 489. Only five lines of the hymn are preserved. They seem to praise the great tower of Bel’s temple at Ekur.

2. R. IV: 2, 27 No. 4; Haupt, Akkadische und sumerische Keilinschrifttexte, page 183; translated by Jastrow, I, 490. Eleven lines constitute an invocation to Bel. The text then breaks off.

3. King, Babylonian Magic, No. 19; Jastrow, I, 492. Sixteen broken hymnal lines introduce the petition of a king.

Hymns to Marduk

1. Craig, Religious Texts, I, plates 29-31; published and translated by Brünnow, Assyrian Hymns, in Zeitschrift für Assyriologie, IV, 246-248 and V, 58-66, 77-78; translated by Martin, Textes religieux Assyriens et Babyloniens, and by Jastrow, I, 513. The hymn consists of thirty-eight lines, and is followed by the petition that the anger of the god may abate and favor be shown the suppliant.

2. K 3459; Hehn, Hymnen und Gebete an Marduk, in Beitrage zur Assyriologie, V, 278-400. The poem is in three columns. Of column I, seven lines out of twenty are preserved entire. Of the twenty-one lines of column II, twelve are missing, and no single line is complete. Columns I and III are in praise of Marduk, while column II seeks forgiveness of sin and deliverance of a sufferer from trouble.

3. K 3505; The first seventeen lines of a hymn are addressed directly to Marduk. The text then breaks off.

4. King, Tablets of Creation, I, 204 ff; Craig, Religious Texts, I, Plate 43; Hehn, No. 5; Jastrow, I, 496ff. The first twenty-one lines of a hymn are in praise of Marduk. The text then breaks off. In the hymnal portion the third person of the verb is used.

5. R. IV: 2, 26 No. 4; translated by Jastrow, I, 496; also by Jeremias in Roscher’s Lexicon, II, col. 2367; also by Hehn, No. 6. Nine lines of a hymn in praise of Marduk, the God of War, are preserved. The text then breaks off.

6. R. IV: 2, 29, No. 1; translated by Jastrow, I, 501; also by Fossey, La Magie assyrienne, pages 364-369; also by Jeremias in Roscher’s Lexicon, II, col. 2355; also by Hehn, No. 7. It is a hymn twenty-nine lines in length, of definite strophic arrangement, addressed directly to Marduk, and followed by exorcisms of various demons.

7. R. IV: 2, 18, No. 1; translated by Hehn, No. 12. It is a fragment of eight lines, referring to the founding of Babylon and the temple of Marduk.

8. R. IV: 2, 21, No. 1; also King, Babylonian Magic, No. 9; translated by King; by Hehn, No. 13; also by Jastrow, I, 500f. Though characterized by King and Jastrow as a prayer, yet the first nine lines, constituting the invocation to the god may be regarded as hymnal material. The body of the prayer consists of seventeen lines, and may well be from a king, seeking health and the favor and support of his god.

9. R. IV: 2, 57; translated by King No. 12; by Hehn No. 14; by Jastrow, I, 499; by Lenormant, La Divination, page 212ff; by Sayce, Hibbert Lectures, pages 536ff. This tablet is concerned with the curing by Marduk’s help of a sick man. The first sixteen lines give directions for the ceremonies to be performed. The priest is instructed to hold the hand of the sick man, and repeat the prayer, lines 17-94. Of these lines 17-44 are hymnal, serving as an invocation to the prayer. Following the prayer there are directions for further ceremonies. The hymn is in the second person addressed directly to the god.

10. K 8961; Craig, Assyrian and Babylonian Religious Texts, I, Pl. 59; translated by Hehn, No. 17; also by Jastrow, I, 497. An incantation hymn, of which only twelve lines remain, is addressed directly to Marduk as an invocation to prayer.

11. Craig, Assyrian and Babylonian Religious Texts, I, Pl. 1; translated by Martin, Textes religieux; also by Jastrow, I, 509. Of this 167 text the opening lines are missing. Ten lines are preserved, being a prayer in the mouth of the priest, of which the first five lines supply the element of adoration.

12. R. IV: 2, 40, No. 1 transliterated and translated by Ball, Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, XV, 51-54; translated also by Hehn, No. 25; by Sayce, Hibbert Lectures, pages 80f; by Jastrow, I, 509. The text comprises thirty-two lines. Lines 1 to 6 state that the priest is to rise in the first hour of the night on the second day of Nisan, wash in river water, put on a linen garment and repeat his prayer. Of the prayer, lines 7 to 28 are hymnal; lines 29 to 32 petition the favor of the god for the city, Babylon and the temple, Esagila.

13. R. IV: 2, 18 No. 2; Also published and translated by Weissbach, Babylonische Miscellen, pages 36-41; translated also by Ungnad, page 85; by Rogers, page 130; by Jastrow, I, 503. This is a text of thirty-seven lines. A colophon at the end directs that the hymn should be used on the eleventh day of Nisan, when Marduk enters his own sanctuary in the temple Esagila. It is a processional hymn apparently sung antiphonally, a priest or choir chanting the first half of the line, and a choir responding with the refrain. The first thirty-three lines welcome the god to his temple; the last four lines petition his favor for the city and its temple.

14. Hehn No. 16; King No. 18; Jastrow, I, 513. This is a fragment of which the first lines are missing. A petition for relief from sickness is preceded by hymnal lines praising Marduk, and expressing confidence in him.

Hymn to Asshur

1. Craig, Religious Texts, I, plates 32-34; translated by Jastrow, I, 520. This is called by Jastrow a Litany to Asshur. It begins with a hymn, twenty-two lines of which are preserved. Then in six lines Anu, Bel, Ea, and the great gods proclaim Asshurbanapal ruler of Assyria, and in the last four lines the god Asshur himself calls Asshurbanapal to lordship.

Hymns to Ishtar

1. King No. 1; duplicate, No. 5; translated by Jastrow, I, 529. It is only a fragment of five lines of praise addressed directly to Ishtar.

2. King No. 32; translated by Jastrow, I, 529. It is a fragment of ten lines of praise, addressed directly to Ishtar.

3. Craig, Religious Texts, I, plates 15-17; translated by Jastrow, I, 535. Eighteen lines of praise are followed by an enumeration of the 168 sacrifices, foods for the temple servants, and of gifts of gold, as well as by directions for the purification of the sick, who wish to be healed by Ishtar.

4. Reisner, Sumerisch-babylonische Hymnen, No. 56; transliterated and translated by Hussey, No. 1. The tablet was according to the colophon ninety-five lines in length, but only fifteen strophes of four lines each are in good preservation. It is a hymn sung by Ishtar in praise of herself.

5. Reisner No. 53; translated by Hussey, No. 5; by Langdon, Sumerian and Babylonian Psalms, page 192; by Jastrow, I, 530. This hymn opens with three strophes of four, three, and four lines respectively in praise of the goddess. Then in strophes of five, four, and seven lines Ishtar appears singing her own praise. There follows the prayer of thirteen lines petitioning the removal of her anger.

Hymn to Sarpanitum

1. Craig, I, plate 1; translated by Jastrow, I, 536. This is a hymn of eleven lines addressed directly to the goddess, followed by a brief petition for the suppliant, the king, and the people of Babylon.

Hymn to Damkina

1. King No. 4; translated by Jastrow, I, 537. The hymn consists of seven lines of invocation to Damkina, and is followed by a petition for the averting of evil threatened by an eclipse of the moon.

Hymns to Belit

1. Haupt, Assyrisch-sumerische Keilinschrifttexte, pages 126-131; Prince, The Hymn to Belit K 357, in the Journal of the American Oriental Society, XXIV, 103-128; translated by Jastrow, I, 538f. This is a hymn of some fifty lines sung entirely by Belit in her own praise.

2. Text and transliteration by Scheil, Zeitschrift für Assyriologie, X, 291-298; also Scheil, Une saison de fouilles a Sippar, page 98 and Tablet II; translated by Jastrow, I, 541. The first twelve lines of the hymn are addressed to Nippur the city of Bel. The following thirty-eight lines are in praise of Belit, and are for the most part addressed directly to her.

Hymn to Enlil

1. Transliterated and translated by Langdon, Sumerian and Babylonian Hymns, page 277. It is a psalm of twenty-five lines. The singers are the bearers of sacrificial gifts to Enlil. The hymn is addressed directly to the god.

A SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Balla, E. Das Ich der Psalmen in Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments. 16. Heft, 1912.

Barton, G. A. Archaeology and the Bible, 1914.

Bewer, J. A. The Psalms and the Song of Songs, Chapter XX in The Literature of The Old Testament, 1926.

Böllenrücher, J. Gebete und Hymnen an Nergal. (Leipziger semitische Studien, 1904.)

Briggs, C. A. The Book of Psalms, I.C.C. (2 vols. 1906, 1907.)

Combe, E. Histoire du Culte de Sin, 1908.

Craig, J. A. Assyrian und Babylonian Religious Texts, I and II. (Assyrische Bibliothek, herausgegeben von Delitzsch und Haupt, XIII, 1895).

Fossey, C. La Magie assyrienne, 1902.

Gunkel, H. Ausgewählte Psalmen, 1911.

—— Die Psalmen. (Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, Band IV, 1913.)

—— Die Psalmen, übersetzt und erklärt, 1926.

—— Einleitung in die Psalmen, 1928.

Haupt, P. Akkadische und sumerische Keilschrifttexte. (Assyrische Bibliothek, herausgegeben von Delitzsch und Haupt, XIII, 1895.)

Hehn, J. Hymnen und Gebete an Marduk. (Beitrage zur Assyriologie, 1906, Vol. V.)

Hussey, M. I. Some Sumerian-Babylonian Hymns of the Berlin Collection. (American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literature, January, 1907.)

Hrozny, F. Myten von dem Gotte Ninrag (Ninib). (Mitteilungen der vorderasiatischen Gesellschaft, 1903.)

Jastrow, M. Die Religion babyloniens und assyriens, 1905-12.

Jensen, P. Texte zur asyrisch-babylonischen Religion. I Lieferung, 1915.

Jeremias, A. Das Alte Testament in Lichte des alten Orients, 1906.

Kent, C. F. Songs, Hymns, and Prayers of the Old Testament, 1914.

King, L. W. Babylonian Magic and Sorcery, 1896.

Kittel, R. Kommentar zum Alten Testament XIII: Die Psalmen, 1914.

Langdon, S. Sumerian and Babylonian Psalms, 1909.

Lods, A. Les Idees de M. Mowinckel. (Revue de l’histoire des religions, 1925, pp. 15-34.)

MacMillan, K. D. Some Cuneiform tablets bearing on the Religion of Babylonia and Assyria. (Beitrage zur Assyriologie, Vol. V. 19.)

Martin, F. Textes Religieux Assyriens et Babyloniens, 1900.

Mowinckel, S. Psalmen Studien, Vols. I-VI, 1921-24.

Nikolsky, N. Spuren magischen Formeln in den Psalmen, 1927.

Perry, E. G. Hymnen und Gebete an Sin. (Leipziger semitische Studien, 1907.)

Peters, J. P. The Psalms as Liturgies, 1922.

Pinckert, J. Hymnen und Gebete an Nebo. (Leipziger semitische Studien, 1907.)

Radau, H. Sumerian Hymns and Prayers to Ninib. (The Babylonian Expedition of the University of Pennsylvania, Series A, Vol. XXIX, Part I.) 1911.

—— Miscellaneous Sumerian Texts from the Temple Library of Nippur. (Hilprecht Anniversary Volume, 1909.)

Rawlinson, G. Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia, 1861-1884.

Rogers, R. The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, 1908.

—— Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Testament, 1912.

Sayce, A. H. Hibbert Lectures, 1887.

Simpson, D. C. (ed.) The Psalmists, 1926.

Smith, J. M. P. The Religion of the Psalms, 1922.

Staerk, W. Lyrik. (Schriften des Alten Testaments in Auswahl, III: 1, 1911.)

Strong, S. A. Proceedings, Society of Biblical Archaeology, Vol. XX: 161, 1898.

Ungnad, A. F. E. In Gressmann, Altorientalische Texte und Bilder, 1909.

Weber, C. Die Literatur der Babylonier und Assyrier, 1907.

Welch, A. C. The Psalter in Life, Worship, and History, 1926.

Zimmern, H. Babylonische Hymnen und Gebete in Auswahl. (Der alte Orient, 1905.)

—— Babylonische Hymnen und Gebete, Zweite Auswahl. (Der alte Orient, 1911.)

FOOTNOTES

INDEXES

GENERAL INDEX

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

A

Adad, 53, 55

Adoration, 18, 19, 45, 53

Alphabetical psalms, 15, 17, 23, 28, 48

Anointed, 38, 48

Antiphonal hymns, 30, 72-82, 99, 157

Antithetical parallelism, 97

Apocrypha, 3

Ascription of praise, 57, 61, 63, 65, 66

Asshur, 55, 81, 110

B

Babylonia, 3, 4, 6

Bel, 55, 69, 92

Belit, 55, 84

Blessing, 12

Body of hymn, 19, 21, 26

Bull of Jacob, 80

C

Call to praise, 19-21, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 37, 39, 40, 85

Choir, 11, 43, 46, 47, 72, 73, 76, 77, 78, 86, 99

City, 45, 46, 73

Classification, 3

Comparative study, 4, 95

Conclusion of hymns, 10, 11, 15, 20, 23, 25, 27, 34, 39, 40, 64, 81, 85, 88

Confidence, 5, 6, 12, 15, 29

Coronation, 7, 48

Council of the Gods, 37, 103

Couplet, 73, 74, 75, 76, 86, 96

Court style, 56, 57, 59, 60, 66

Creator, 21, 81, 120, 121, 122, 123, 129, 155

D

Damkina, 55

Date, 1

Decree, 82

Destiny, 131, 132

Development, 4, 5, 12, 15, 18, 53, 56, 65, 66, 69, 92, 156

Diaspora, 11, 47

Divisions of line, 95

E

Egypt, 3, 4

Enemies, 5, 6, 7, 12, 14

Enlil, 55, 65, 72, 80

Enthusiasm, 18, 21, 22, 32, 34, 38, 54, 55, 107, 119, 123

Eschatological psalms, 6, 14, 26, 31, 32-38, 49, 50, 150, 152

Ethical character of Assyrian god, 59, 151

Exalted deity, 110, 111

F

Faith, 4, 7, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 25, 30, 45

Father, 145, 157

Fertility, 22, 85, 125, 126

Forgiveness, 8, 9, 10, 55, 143

G

Gloss, 86

Goodness, 22, 24, 42

Gratitude, 10, 18, 53, 55

Groups, 3, 4, 5, 9, 53

H

Hallelujah, 19, 20, 22, 23, 34, 41

Harvest, 12

Healing, 9, 10, 61, 62, 142

Heavens, 42, 109, 111, 120, 157

Holiness of Gawe, 22, 34, 107

Holy mountain, 114

Hymn, 4, 11, 12, 18, 20, 23, 24, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 41, 43, 44, 45, 53, 56, 65, 92

Hymnal introductions, 18, 40, 53, 60, 64, 65, 67, 74, 78, 83, 92, 156

I

Idols, 22, 25, 29, 37, 105

Iknaton, 41

Individual, the, in Assyrian and Hebrew religion, 7, 8, 9, 10, 14, 21, 28, 43, 67, 68, 72, 78, 141, 157

Invocation, 57, 60, 61, 65, 66, 73, 76, 89

Ishtar, 53, 55, 56, 58, 63, 64, 78, 79, 85, 86, 109

J

Jerusalem, 14, 21, 44, 45, 46, 141

Judge, 37, 104, 150, 151, 157

K

King, 6, 9, 10, 32, 36, 37, 38, 48, 49, 50, 82, 132, 146, 155, 156, 157

L

Lament, 5, 7, 8, 15, 44, 53, 54, 64

Legend, 11

Length of line, 95

Lightning, 40, 80

Litany, 81, 82

Literary dependence, 105, 155

Liturgical psalms, 10, 13, 27, 28, 30, 36, 41, 47

Lord, 80, 81, 82, 104

Lower world, 111

M

Magic, 7, 55, 62, 66, 73, 78, 90, 96, 106, 132, 134, 142, 155

Marduk, 53, 55, 56, 57, 58, 63, 64, 68, 69, 89, 91, 108, 110, 111

Mercy, 8, 10, 22, 26, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 155

Monotheism, 36, 53, 54, 102, 105, 120, 155

Moon, 109

Mountains, 114, 120

N

Name, 42, 75, 80, 81, 85, 106, 107

Nationalism, 5, 6, 8, 10, 14, 22, 152

Nature, 39, 53, 59, 71, 107, 109, 124, 154

Nebo, 57, 58, 73

Nergal, 53, 55, 56, 57, 72, 74, 75, 77, 88, 90

New song, 33

Night, 39

Ninib, 53, 55, 57, 58, 70, 83, 84, 110

Nusku, 53, 55, 58, 59, 62, 83, 108, 118

O

Oracle, 13, 49, 82, 133, 155, 157

Originality, 4, 5, 11, 26

P

Parallelism, 72, 74, 76, 96, 97, 154

Penitential, 4

Persecution, 7

Petition, 5-8, 10, 15, 21, 29, 38, 40, 41, 44, 48, 62, 63, 64, 87

Philological study of psalms, 3

Phraseology, 88, 100, 155, 157

Pilgrimage, 44, 46, 47

Polytheism, 53, 100, 101, 102, 103, 122, 133, 157

Power, 22, 84, 130, 131, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 155

Praise, 4, 6, 11, 18, 19, 23, 65, 83, 156

Prayer, 4, 6, 7, 9, 40, 53, 55

Priest, 6, 10, 13, 21, 29, 30, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 86

Processional, 11, 26, 27, 46, 68, 99, 154

Prophetic, 28, 45, 156

Proselytes, 21, 29

R

Ramman, 72, 79, 80, 88, 109

Reasons for praise, 20, 21, 22, 28, 29

Refrain, 35, 64, 72, 73, 75, 76, 79, 80, 87, 98, 154, 157

Repetitions, 72, 76, 77, 78, 88

Responses, 73, 74, 75, 86

Rhetorical questions, 63, 66, 87, 99, 103, 154

Righteousness, 151, 152, 155

S

Sacrifice, 5, 6, 9, 53, 55, 56, 65, 116, 117, 118, 119, 125

Sanctuary, 3, 5, 6, 9, 11, 12, 19, 21, 23, 25, 27, 32, 44, 59, 69, 86, 91, 92, 112, 154

Sarpanitum, 55, 59, 64, 65, 109

Sceptre, 146, 149

Second person, 20, 25, 35, 36, 40, 43, 55, 65, 66, 72, 89, 90, 92

Self-introduction, 87, 92

Sennacherib, 46

Shamash, 40, 53, 55, 58, 70, 71, 108

Sheol, 9, 17

Shepherd, 13, 144, 157

Sickness, 7, 8, 9, 61, 142

Simplicity, 5, 8, 11, 13

Sin, 53, 55, 57, 59, 63, 65, 71, 73, 76, 108

Soliloquy, 13, 41

Solo, 11, 43

Strophic arrangement, 65, 79, 86, 98, 154

Supplication, 4

Supreme God, 104, 105

Synonymous parallelism, 96

Synthetical parallelism, 97

T

Tautological parallelism, 96

Teaching, 4, 9, 15, 17, 30

Testimony, 8, 9, 12, 18, 42

Thanksgiving, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 53

Third person, 20, 25, 35, 36, 40, 55, 89, 90, 92, 99

Throne, 146, 148

Thunder, 39, 40, 88, 109, 127, 129

Titles, 57, 58, 68, 72, 73, 76, 87

Tristich, 76, 96

Type, 3, 9

U

Universalism, 24, 26, 31, 37, 53, 107

V

Variation, 3, 24, 75

Voice, 39, 88, 110

Vow, 5, 9, 12, 30, 81

W

War God, 134, 135, 136, 137, 157

Wisdom, 15, 28, 30, 65, 66, 130, 131, 132, 134, 155

Word, 69, 89, 90, 91, 127, 128, 129

INDEX OF BIBLICAL PASSAGES

Psalm Exodus Isaiah Jonah

Psalm

1 15

2 38, 49, 50, 82, 123

3 7

4 12

7 7, 8

8 20, 22, 39, 41, 42, 47, 95, 96, 106, 110, 111, 121, 123, 155, 156

9 12

10 5

11 12, 109, 151

13 7, 142

16 12

17 8, 116

18 9

19 20, 39, 40, 95, 96, 134

20 6

21 9

22 7

23 12

24 20, 27, 96, 135, 154, 155

26 8

27 12, 116

29 20, 21, 22, 23, 39, 104, 109, 128, 149, 155

30 9

31 142

32 9, 19

33 20, 22, 23, 30, 107, 121, 122, 129, 131, 132, 143

34 15

37 15, 16

38 8, 142

39 8

42 8, 19

43 8, 19

44 5, 44

45 48

46 14, 105

47 20, 32, 34, 97, 138, 148, 149, 155

48 45, 46, 47, 92, 106, 114, 150, 154

49 15, 16

51 8

55 7

56 7

57 7

58 151

59 7, 8

60 5

62 12, 114

63 12, 116

64 7

65 11, 12, 19

66 9, 20, 143

67 6, 21, 37, 96, 97, 155

68 20, 21, 22, 110, 127, 135, 136, 137, 138, 141, 143, 151

69 7

70 7

71 8

72 6, 7, 48, 49

73 15, 16

74 5

75 151

76 106, 112, 132, 138

78 15

79 5

80 5

81 138

82 32, 35, 37, 38, 97, 104, 110, 123, 151

83 5, 110

84 20, 44, 112

85 5

86 140, 142

87 44, 47, 48, 114

88 8

89 103, 104, 136, 138, 156

90 6

91 13

92 12, 110, 132

93 20, 32, 35, 36, 116, 148, 149

95 20, 102, 114, 118, 121, 124, 144, 149, 150, 154

96 20, 32, 33, 34, 37, 102, 103, 105, 112, 118, 149, 152, 153, 155

97 20, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 104, 137, 138, 148, 149, 151, 153

98 20, 32, 33, 34, 36, 37, 96, 97, 136, 152, 153

99 20, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 98, 106, 110, 118, 149, 151

100 19, 20, 22, 26, 113, 144, 155

101 48

102 8

103 9, 10, 18, 22, 107, 140, 141, 143, 144, 145, 148, 150

176

104 22, 23, 39, 40, 41, 97, 99, 110, 116, 122, 124, 125, 126, 129, 133, 137, 156

105 12

107 10

109 7

110 49, 82

111 19, 20, 22, 23, 28, 118

112 15

113 19, 20, 22, 23, 25, 99, 103, 105, 110, 111, 140, 141

114 11, 126, 136, 137

115 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 29, 95, 97, 98, 106, 109, 112, 118, 122

116 9, 142

117 19, 20, 21, 23, 31

118 9

119 48

121 13

122 44, 45

123 5, 6

124 11

125 5, 6, 15, 16

126 5

127 15, 16

128 15, 16

129 5, 6

130 8

131 13

132 112, 115

133 15, 16

134 19, 20, 27, 122

135 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 102, 105, 107, 110, 114, 136, 152

136 5, 11, 12, 104, 121

137 5

138 9

139 15, 112, 123, 139

144 156

145 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 28, 107, 118, 140, 149

146 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 28, 118, 140, 141, 142, 149

147 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 113, 114, 124, 125, 126, 129, 130, 141

148 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 107, 110, 111, 121, 129

149 19, 20, 23, 32, 33, 34, 37, 124, 153

150 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 113, 148, 155

Jonah

2 9

Exodus

3:6 87

20:2 87

Isaiah

41:2, 4 87

42:8 87

43:11, 12 87

45:5, 7 88

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